History of English Language in Governance

The Anglo-Saxon Invasion

• During the Roman occupation, attacks from Picts and Scots were suppressed, but post-occupation, Britons could not defend themselves.
• The Britons sought assistance from Rome, which was unable to help due to its own issues.
• Vortigern, a leader of the Britons, requested aid from Germanic tribes; the Saxons agreed to help in 449 AD.
• Ironically, the Saxons eventually betrayed and subjugated the Britons despite initially being invited.

Anglo-Saxon Tribes

• Sources about the Anglo-Saxons mainly come from Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People (731).
• The Angles settled in the mid-north of Britain, the Jutes in Kent and the Isle of Wight, and the Saxons along the River Thames in Essex and Middlesex.
• While some regions saw peaceful coexistence, others experienced significant conflict, pushing Britons mainly into Cornwall and Wales.

Etymology of England/English

• The English identity originated from three tribes: Angles, Jutes, and Saxons.
• Bede used the Latin labels Anglii and Saxones, with Anglii/Engle referring to inhabitants of England and Angli Saxones distinguishing them from Old Saxons in continental Europe.
• Since the 11th century, Britain came to be referred to as England.

The Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy

• By the 7th century, seven kingdoms emerged: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex.
• Power dynamics between these kingdoms fluctuated over 200 years, particularly influenced by Northumbria's cultural rise and subsequent Viking raids.

Dialects of Old English

• The primary Old English dialects included Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish, and West Saxon, with no clear boundaries, allowing for mutual intelligibility.
• The prestige of West Saxon was linked to political power and the influence of King Alfred.

Linguistic Developments

• Anglo-Saxon and Old English refer to the same stage of language, usually divided into Early (7th-9th centuries) and Late Old English (10th-11th centuries).
• The Viking invasions (787-878) introduced significant Norse influence on English, leading to a hybrid linguistic landscape.

Norman Conquest and Its Effects

• After Edward the Confessor’s death in 1066, claims to the throne culminated in the Battle of Hastings.
• William of Normandy defeated Harold Godwinson, becoming King of England on Christmas Day 1066.
• England became trilingual with French as the language of the royal court, Latin for administration, and English for the common people.

The Rise of Middle English

• Middle English (1100-1500) followed a gradual diminution of French influence, especially with increasing use of English in government.
• The printing press introduced by William Caxton in 1476 facilitated the production of English texts, driving standardization.

Standardization of English

• The dialect of East Midlands became the basis for standard English, but without a straightforward path to standardization.
• Various written forms existed before Chancery English became the dominant standard due to its use in governmental documents.

Impact of the Printing Press

• Caxton's choice of London English for his printing press significantly influenced the spread of written English and contributed to its legitimacy as a language of learning.
• The printing press also allowed for the production of diverse texts, promoting a standard English variety across the nation.

Dictionaries and Grammars

• Early grammar efforts, such as Jonathan Swift’s A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue (1712), aimed to standardize English language usage.
• Early bilingual dictionaries emerged, including Caxton’s 1480 English-French dictionary, assisting in translation and language learning.