History of Engineering: Ancient Innovations and Structures

Ancient Innovations

• Between 6000 and 3000 B.C., the stone-bladed axe and irrigation systems promoted crop growth.
• The pyramids of Egypt were built between 3000 and 600 B.C., with at least 118 identified pyramids.
• The Kingdom of Kush (Sudan) built around 80 pyramids.

Ancient Roman Innovations

• The Romans built roads between 600 B.C. and A.D. 400 using a layered system:
  • A layer of dry sand
  • A layer of medium-to-large stones (statumen)
  • A layer of small gravel mixed with cement (rudus)
  • A layer of sand mixed with cement (nucleus)
  • A top layer of flat, wide stones (summum dorsum)

Chinese Innovations

• Between 100 A.D. and 1600 A.D., the Chinese produced paper and gunpowder.
• Early Chinese paper was made from mulberry tree bark fibers.
• Later, hemp rags and old fish nets were added to the pulp to make higher-quality paper.
• The first gunpowder was made by mixing potassium nitrate, sulfur, and charcoal.

Industrial Revolution

• Between 1601 A.D. and 1799 A.D., steam engines and spinning and weaving machinery were produced.
• Steam engines work by burning fuel (primarily coal) to heat water in a boiler.
• The process of making yarn from fibers is called spinning.
• The process of arranging two sets of yarns together to make a fabric is called weaving.

Modern Era

• In modern times, cars and household appliances are mass-produced.
• Production vehicles or production cars are mass-produced models of automobiles.
• A home appliance, also referred to as a domestic appliance, is a device that performs a specific function.

Challenges and Opportunities

• New or improved results are greatly needed in the following problem areas:
  • Producing more food for a fast-growing world population
  • Eliminating air and water pollution
  • Solid waste disposal and materials recycling
  • Reducing noise in various forms
  • Supplying the increasing demand for energy
  • Supplying the increasing demand for mobility
  • Preventing and solving crimes
  • Meeting the increasing demand for communication facilities

The Function of Engineering

• Research: studying nature and translating information into practical theories
• Design and development: transforming an idea into a tangible object
• Testing: testing the viability of new components
• Manufacturing: managing the manufacturing team
• Construction: ensuring the quality of the construction process
• Sales: helping customers satisfy their needs
• Consulting: working as a consultant for individuals or organizations
• Government: working for the government in regulation, monitoring, and managing operations
• Teaching: teaching engineering courses in schools
• Management: supervising teams of individuals carrying out duties

Engineers in Organizations

• Level One: minimal engineering jobs (e.g., retailing firms)
• Level Two: moderate degree of engineering jobs (e.g., transportation companies)
• Level Three: high degree of engineering jobs (e.g., construction firms)
• Engineers have varying opportunities for advancement in these organizations.