History of Electronic Calculators

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Questions and Answers

What was the decade when pocket-sized electronic calculators became available?

1970s (correct)

1960s

1980s

1990s

What was the company involved in the development of the first microprocessor?

Hewlett-Packard

Texas Instruments

Intel

Busicom (correct)

When did electronic calculators become common in schools?

Late 1970s (correct)

Early 1970s

Mid-1970s

Late 1960s

What feature is included in some calculators in addition to general calculations?

Trigonometric and statistical calculations Signup and view all the answers

What type of devices often include calculator functions?

Smartphones, tablets, and PDAs Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the Intel 4004?

It was the first microprocessor Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the world's general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information did calculators represent in 1986?

41% Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the '00' and '000' buttons on some calculators?

To make larger or smaller numbers easier to enter Signup and view all the answers

What type of displays were used in older calculators?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

How are fractions such as 1⁄3 typically displayed on calculators?

As a decimal approximation Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of variables on some calculators?

To store multiple numbers Signup and view all the answers

What is a common power source for calculators?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

Why do some calculators have no turn-off button?

To allow them to turn off automatically Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the clock rate in a calculator?

To measure the calculator's speed Signup and view all the answers

How do basic calculators typically perform calculations?

Using binary-coded decimal (BCD) Signup and view all the answers

What is the usual layout of the digits on a calculator keypad?

7-8-9 on top, 1-2-3 on the third row Signup and view all the answers

What led to the large scale production of more compact and modern calculating units?

The refinement of manufacturing and fabrication processes Signup and view all the answers

When was the Arithmometer released to production as an adding machine?

1851 Signup and view all the answers

By what year had about 2,500 arithmometers been sold?

1890 Signup and view all the answers

Who developed the Dalton Adding Machine with a familiar push-button user interface?

James L. Dalton Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of using BCD in electronic systems?

To simplify the manipulation of numerical data for display Signup and view all the answers

What was Edith Clarke's invention in 1921?

The Clarke calculator Signup and view all the answers

Why do some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes?

To assist in writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities Signup and view all the answers

What allowed electrical engineers to simplify calculations for inductance and capacitance in power transmission lines?

The Clarke calculator Signup and view all the answers

When was the Curta calculator developed?

1948 Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the Antikythera mechanism?

Astronomical calculations Signup and view all the answers

What ended the manufacture of mechanical calculators?

Electronic pocket calculators Signup and view all the answers

Who is credited with inventing the first direct multiplication machine?

Luigi Torchi Signup and view all the answers

What was the world's first all-electric compact calculator released in 1957?

The Model 14-A calculator Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary limitation of Pascal's calculator?

It could not perform multiplication and division Signup and view all the answers

What was unique to the ANITA calculator among electronic calculators?

A full keyboard Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary contribution of Poleni?

Creating the first fully functional calculating clock and four-operation machine Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary advantage of the stepped reckoner?

It used a clever set of mechanized multiplication tables Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary limitation of Schickard's machine?

It was not fully operational Signup and view all the answers

When did significant developments in calculating machines begin?

In the 19th century Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary limitation of using binary representation in small processors?

It is expensive on limited processors Signup and view all the answers

Which company introduced the IME 84 calculator that allowed multiple users to connect to it?

Industria Macchine Elettroniche Signup and view all the answers

What was the weight of the Sharp CS-10A calculator?

25 kilograms Signup and view all the answers

What was the name of the Bulgarian calculator that included a square root function?

ELKA 6521 Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory technology was used in the Toshiba 'Toscal' BC-1411?

Dynamic RAM Signup and view all the answers

What was the name of the first Japanese programmable desktop calculator?

Casio AL-1000 Signup and view all the answers

What was the main limitation of the Monroe Epic programmable calculator?

It did not have conditional branch logic Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the U.S. semiconductor manufacturers in calculator development?

They led the world in large scale integration (LSI) semiconductor development Signup and view all the answers

What was the name of the first Soviet programmable desktop calculator?

ISKRA 123 Signup and view all the answers

What was the main challenge in developing early electronic calculators?

Reducing their power consumption Signup and view all the answers

What was the year when the first all-transistor electronic calculators were introduced?

1964 Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of using CMOS technology in integrated circuits?

Reduced power consumption Signup and view all the answers

What type of displays required additional driver transistors or ICs?

VFD Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the introduction of solar cells as a power source?

Enabled calculators to be powered by solar cells Signup and view all the answers

What was the status of calculator integrated circuits in 1971?

They were leading edge technology with low yields and high costs Signup and view all the answers

What was the characteristic of transistors in CMOS ICs?

They used power only when they changed state Signup and view all the answers

What was the retail price of the Sinclair Cambridge calculator in kit form?

£5 less than the retail price Signup and view all the answers

What notation was used by the HP-35 calculator?

Reverse Polish notation (RPN) Signup and view all the answers

What was the name of the first Soviet scientific pocket-sized calculator?

Elektronika B3-18 Signup and view all the answers

What was the name of the first calculator marketed to the Real Estate industry?

Loan Arranger Signup and view all the answers

What was the capacity of the HP-65 programmable pocket calculator?

100 instructions Signup and view all the answers

What was the unique feature of the HP-41C calculator?

Programmable and expandable Signup and view all the answers

What was the name of the first Soviet pocket battery-powered programmable calculator?

Elektronika B3-21 Signup and view all the answers

What was the limitation of the Sinclair calculators?

Slow and less accurate computations of transcendental functions Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the HP-35 calculator?

It was the first calculator with scientific functions Signup and view all the answers

What was the feature of the Texas Instruments (TI) SR-11 calculator?

Added key for entering pi (π) Signup and view all the answers

What was the Elektronika MK-52 calculator used for in the Soviet spacecraft program?

As a backup of the board computer Signup and view all the answers

What was the term used to describe the esoteric science of exploiting undocumented features of the Elektronika MK-52 calculator?

Yeggogology Signup and view all the answers

What type of display was used in the first pocket-sized calculator, the Busicom LE-120A?

LED Signup and view all the answers

What was the technology used in the Sharp EL-805 calculator?

Calculator On Substrate (COS) technology Signup and view all the answers

What was the advantage of LCDs over other display types?

They were more energy-efficient Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the Casio Mini Card LC-78 calculator?

It was the first credit-card-sized calculator Signup and view all the answers

What type of LCDs were used in calculators in the mid-1970s?

Field-effect, twisted nematic (TN) LCDs Signup and view all the answers

What was the error message displayed on the Elektronika MK-52 calculator?

YEGGOG Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the Busicom LC calculator?

It was the first calculator announced with an LCD display, but it was never released Signup and view all the answers

What was the advantage of the Sharp EL-805 calculator over other calculators?

It was more energy-efficient Signup and view all the answers

Which company developed the first handheld calculator called Cal Tech?

Texas Instruments Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the Sharp QT-8B 'micro Compet'?

It was one of the first commercially produced portable calculators Signup and view all the answers

What was the name of the first European-made pocket-sized calculator?

DB 800 Signup and view all the answers

What was the price of the Bowmar 901B when it was released?

US$240 Signup and view all the answers

What was the name of the company that introduced the first 'calculator on a chip', the MK6010?

Mostek Signup and view all the answers

Which company collaborated with General Instrument in ICs and introduced their first single chip calculator IC?

Pico Electronics Signup and view all the answers

What was the weight of the Sharp EL-8, also marketed as the Facit 1111?

1.59 pounds (721 grams) Signup and view all the answers

What was the name of the first handheld calculator to use an LED display?

LE-120A 'HANDY' Signup and view all the answers

What was the name of the company that released five pocket calculators in 1972?

Eldorado Electrodata Signup and view all the answers

What was the price of the Sinclair Executive when it was released?

£79 (US$194) Signup and view all the answers

What type of authority is involved when decisions are made by individuals at the bedside?

Decentralized authority Signup and view all the answers

Which type of working arrangement groups employees by discipline, with similar tasks being performed by the same group?

Functional working arrangement Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a service-line working arrangement?

Grouping all functions needed to produce a service together Signup and view all the answers

In a decentralized authority structure, who is involved in making clinical decisions?

Doctors, nurses, and other registered professionals, along with the patient and carers Signup and view all the answers

What type of decisions are usually made centrally in a healthcare organization?

Purchasing supplies and equipment Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a service-line in a healthcare organization?

Musculoskeletal service Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of service planning in an organization?

To identify the resources required to meet future demand Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between service planning and the strategic plan of an organization?

The strategic plan reconciles service planning between areas and makes adjustments where necessary Signup and view all the answers

What is the ultimate goal of service planning in an organization?

To deliver a service that aligns with the organization's mission and vision Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of values in an organization?

To form a basis for behavior Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of a vision statement in an organization?

To inspire and motivate employees Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the organization's mission and vision?

The mission is a broad statement of the organization's reason for existence, while the vision is a specific goal Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of strategic planning in an organization?

To focus energies, resources, and actions into the future Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of constructive organizational culture?

Focus on self-actualisation and humanism Signup and view all the answers

What is the level at which strategic planning is typically undertaken?

Board level Signup and view all the answers

What is the time frame for which organizations typically project their goals and activities during strategic planning?

Two to five years Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of service planning in an organization?

To align services with the organization's goals and mission Signup and view all the answers

What is an essential activity in successful organizations?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is conflict in a healthcare setting?

The consequence of real or perceived differences in goals, values, ideas, attitudes, beliefs, feelings, or actions Signup and view all the answers

What type of conflict occurs within one individual?

Intrapersonal conflict Signup and view all the answers

Why is learning how to deal with conflict essential for success in a healthcare organization?

Because it is a difficult problem managers and leaders face Signup and view all the answers

What turns differences into conflict in a healthcare setting?

The meaning we attribute to the difference and how we respond Signup and view all the answers

Which conflict management strategy is considered the most effective means for solving conflicts?

Confrontation Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of a leader/manager in managing conflicts in a healthcare organization?

To prevent conflicts, respond when involved in differences, and support those in conflict to restore good working relationships Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of the confrontation conflict management strategy?

To achieve a win-win solution Signup and view all the answers

In what type of conflicts is mediation particularly beneficial?

Personal conflicts Signup and view all the answers

What is essential for success in a healthcare organization?

Learning how to deal with conflict Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of an integrative decision-making process in a healthcare organization?

To find a solution that meets the needs of all parties Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of a mediator in the conflict resolution process?

To facilitate a mutually agreed solution Signup and view all the answers

What is a common source of conflict in healthcare organizations?

Different values and beliefs Signup and view all the answers

When should confrontation be delivered in a conflict resolution process?

In private as soon as possible Signup and view all the answers

What can lead to role ambiguity in healthcare organizations?

Overlapping responsibilities Signup and view all the answers

What is the goal of the mediation process in conflict resolution?

To provide participants with the opportunity to express their feelings Signup and view all the answers

What is the atmosphere that encourages the free exchange of ideas and feelings in a healthcare organization?

Collaborative Signup and view all the answers

Why do individuals in healthcare organizations have different views on what constitutes quality patient care?

Due to their different values and beliefs Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of integrative decision-making in a healthcare organization?

A solution that satisfies all parties Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of disruptive conflict in the workplace?

Focusing on differences between parties Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of disruptive behavior in a conflict between a mental health team leader and the head of occupational therapy?

Refusing to attend meetings Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common source of disruptive conflict at work?

Differences in values, beliefs, opinions, actions, and ideas Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of disruptive conflict in unusual circumstances?

Upsetting or violent behavior Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a situation that can lead to disruptive conflict?

Two nurses disagreeing on the level of support a patient needs at home Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical atmosphere in which disruptive conflict takes place?

Fear, anger, and distress Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a person's preference for conflict response?

Their experience and assessment of risk Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of Competing in conflict response?

An all-out effort to win, to defend, or to be judged right Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for Avoiding in conflict response?

A fear of the other person or fear of making things worse Signup and view all the answers

What is a common behavior associated with Competing in conflict response?

Blaming and criticizing Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of a person's choice of conflict response strategy?

It is based on their experience and assessment of risk Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between a person's experience and their conflict response strategy?

A person's experience influences their conflict response strategy Signup and view all the answers

What is a key aspect of creating a positive conflict environment?

Encouraging openness and honesty in communication Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of understanding antecedent conditions for conflict?

To understand the conditions that make conflict more likely Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the leader/manager in managing conflict?

To create a positive conflict environment and enlist others to help solve conflicts Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of replacing BCD with QRS in conflict management?

Improved communication and respect Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of individuals who use an accommodating response to conflict?

To prioritize the concerns of the other person over their own Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of conflict?

It is a dynamic process that can lead to change Signup and view all the answers

In what type of situation is accommodating more likely to occur?

When dealing with someone of higher power Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of an antecedent condition for conflict?

Incompatible goals Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential drawback of compromising in a conflict?

Parties may feel they have somehow failed, and underlying needs may go unaddressed Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between accommodation and compromise?

Accommodation involves giving in, while compromise involves finding a middle ground Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential benefit of accommodating in a conflict?

It can build rapport and goodwill, leading to future advantages Signup and view all the answers

What type of response to conflict is accommodation often seen as?

A passive response, aimed at ending conflict or reducing tension Signup and view all the answers

What is the key to avoiding conflict and developing a healthy working relationship?

Changing your assumptions about the person Signup and view all the answers

According to McCannon and McCannon (2008), what type of thinking often creates conflict?

Resistant way of thinking Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a conflict starter behavior?

Blaming Signup and view all the answers

Why do people have assumptions about other groups?

Based on their experience Signup and view all the answers

What happens when we don't examine our assumptions about others?

We become more resistant Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of having unexamined assumptions about others?

Increased conflict Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Electronic Calculators

An electronic calculator is a portable electronic device used to perform calculations, ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics.
The first solid-state electronic calculator was created in the early 1960s.

Design and Input

Electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations.
Some calculators have "00" and "000" buttons to make larger or smaller numbers easier to enter.
Most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button.
Some calculators have multi-function working with key combinations.

Display Output

Calculators usually have liquid-crystal displays (LCD) as output, replacing historical light-emitting diode (LED) displays and vacuum fluorescent displays (VFD).
Large-sized figures are often used to improve readability.
Calculators use decimal separators (usually a point rather than a comma) instead of or in addition to vulgar fractions.

Memory

Calculators have the ability to save numbers into computer memory.
Basic calculators usually store only one number at a time.
More specific types of calculators can store many numbers represented in variables.
Variables can be used for constructing formulas.

Power Sources

Power sources of calculators include batteries, solar cells, or mains electricity (for old models).
Calculators turn on with a switch or button.

Internal Workings

A basic electronic calculator consists of a clock rate of a processor chip, which refers to the frequency at which the central processing unit (CPU) is running.
The speed of a calculator can vary from a few hundred hertz to the kilohertz range.
Calculators perform calculations using binary-coded decimal (BCD) rather than binary.

Historical Development

The first known tools used to aid arithmetic calculations were bones, pebbles, and counting boards, and the abacus.
Development of computing tools began in the 17th century with the invention of the mechanical calculator.
In the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution led to the refinement of manufacturing and fabrication processes, making large-scale production of more compact and modern units possible.
The first commercially successful electronic calculator was the Arithmometer, invented in 1820 and released to production in 1851.
The familiar push-button user interface was developed in 1902 with the introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine.
The Curta calculator was developed in 1948 and remained popular for its portability.

Electronic Calculators (Cont.)

The first electronic calculator was the Casio Computer Company's Model 14-A, released in 1957.
The IBM 608 plugboard programmable calculator was IBM's first all-transistor product, released in 1957.
The first all-electronic desktop calculator, the British Bell Punch/Sumlock Comptometer ANITA, was announced in October 1961.
The Friden EC-130, introduced in June 1963, had an all-transistor design and a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a 5-inch CRT.

Programmable Calculators

The first desktop programmable calculators were produced in the mid-1960s, including the Mathatronics Mathatron and the Olivetti Programma 101.
The Monroe Epic programmable calculator came on the market in 1967.
The first Soviet programmable desktop calculator, ISKRA 123, was released at the start of the 1970s.

Pocket Calculators

The first handheld calculator was a 1967 prototype called Cal Tech, developed by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments.
The first commercially produced portable calculators appeared in Japan in 1970, including the Sanyo ICC-0081, the Canon Pocketronic, and the Sharp QT-8B.
The first "calculator on a chip" was the MK6010 by Mostek, introduced in 1971.
The Busicom LE-120A "HANDY" was the first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator, marketed in 1971.### Early Pocket Calculators
The first European-made pocket-sized calculator, DB 800, was manufactured in May 1971 by Digitron in Buje, Croatia, with four functions and an eight-digit display.
The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B, was released in Autumn 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red LED display, priced at $240.
The first slimline pocket calculator, the Sinclair Executive, was introduced in August 1972, measuring 5.4 by 2.2 by 0.35 inches and weighing 2.5 ounces, priced at £79 (approximately $194).

Development of Pocket Calculators

By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than £5 ($6.85).
Eldorado Electrodata released five pocket calculators in 1972, including the Touch Magic, which was "no bigger than a pack of cigarettes".
The first Soviet Union-made pocket-sized calculator, the Elektronika B3-04, was developed by the end of 1973 and sold at the start of 1974.

Scientific Pocket Calculators

The first scientific pocket calculator, the HP-35, was launched in early 1972, with scientific functions that could replace a slide rule, priced at $395.
The HP-35 used reverse Polish notation (RPN) and had 35 buttons, based on the Mostek Mk6020 chip.
The first Soviet scientific pocket-sized calculator, the "B3-18", was completed by the end of 1975.

Programmable Pocket Calculators

The first programmable pocket calculator, the HP-65, was released in 1974, with a capacity of 100 instructions and a built-in magnetic card reader.
The HP-25C introduced continuous memory in 1976, where programs and data were retained in CMOS memory during power-off.
The first alphanumeric, programmable, expandable calculator, the HP-41C, was released in 1979, with the ability to be expanded with RAM and ROM modules.

Technical Improvements

The red LED and blue/green vacuum fluorescent displays consumed a lot of power, leading to short battery life or large batteries.
The first successful calculators with LCDs were manufactured by Rockwell International in 1972, with a Dynamic Scattering Mode (DSM) display.
The first credit-card-sized calculators, such as the Casio Mini Card LC-78, appeared in 1978, with a TN LCD display and a low power consumption.
The power consumption of integrated circuits was reduced with the introduction of CMOS technology, allowing for the use of solar cells as the power source.

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Description

Learn about the development of electronic calculators from the first solid-state device to modern portable devices. Discover the key milestones and innovations that made calculators a ubiquitous tool.