History of Electronic Calculators
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Questions and Answers

What was the decade when pocket-sized electronic calculators became available?

  • 1970s (correct)
  • 1960s
  • 1980s
  • 1990s

    • What was the company involved in the development of the first microprocessor?

  • Hewlett-Packard
  • Texas Instruments
  • Intel
  • Busicom (correct)

    • When did electronic calculators become common in schools?

  • Late 1970s (correct)
  • Early 1970s
  • Mid-1970s
  • Late 1960s

    • What feature is included in some calculators in addition to general calculations?

    <p>Trigonometric and statistical calculations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of devices often include calculator functions?

    <p>Smartphones, tablets, and PDAs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the significance of the Intel 4004?

    <p>It was the first microprocessor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the world's general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information did calculators represent in 1986?

    <p>41%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the '00' and '000' buttons on some calculators?

    <p>To make larger or smaller numbers easier to enter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of displays were used in older calculators?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are fractions such as 1⁄3 typically displayed on calculators?

    <p>As a decimal approximation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of variables on some calculators?

    <p>To store multiple numbers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common power source for calculators?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do some calculators have no turn-off button?

    <p>To allow them to turn off automatically</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the clock rate in a calculator?

    <p>To measure the calculator's speed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do basic calculators typically perform calculations?

    <p>Using binary-coded decimal (BCD)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the usual layout of the digits on a calculator keypad?

    <p>7-8-9 on top, 1-2-3 on the third row</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What led to the large scale production of more compact and modern calculating units?

    <p>The refinement of manufacturing and fabrication processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When was the Arithmometer released to production as an adding machine?

    <p>1851</p> Signup and view all the answers

    By what year had about 2,500 arithmometers been sold?

    <p>1890</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who developed the Dalton Adding Machine with a familiar push-button user interface?

    <p>James L. Dalton</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using BCD in electronic systems?

    <p>To simplify the manipulation of numerical data for display</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was Edith Clarke's invention in 1921?

    <p>The Clarke calculator</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes?

    <p>To assist in writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What allowed electrical engineers to simplify calculations for inductance and capacitance in power transmission lines?

    <p>The Clarke calculator</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When was the Curta calculator developed?

    <p>1948</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Antikythera mechanism?

    <p>Astronomical calculations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ended the manufacture of mechanical calculators?

    <p>Electronic pocket calculators</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is credited with inventing the first direct multiplication machine?

    <p>Luigi Torchi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the world's first all-electric compact calculator released in 1957?

    <p>The Model 14-A calculator</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary limitation of Pascal's calculator?

    <p>It could not perform multiplication and division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was unique to the ANITA calculator among electronic calculators?

    <p>A full keyboard</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary contribution of Poleni?

    <p>Creating the first fully functional calculating clock and four-operation machine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary advantage of the stepped reckoner?

    <p>It used a clever set of mechanized multiplication tables</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary limitation of Schickard's machine?

    <p>It was not fully operational</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When did significant developments in calculating machines begin?

    <p>In the 19th century</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of using binary representation in small processors?

    <p>It is expensive on limited processors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which company introduced the IME 84 calculator that allowed multiple users to connect to it?

    <p>Industria Macchine Elettroniche</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the weight of the Sharp CS-10A calculator?

    <p>25 kilograms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the name of the Bulgarian calculator that included a square root function?

    <p>ELKA 6521</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of memory technology was used in the Toshiba 'Toscal' BC-1411?

    <p>Dynamic RAM</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the name of the first Japanese programmable desktop calculator?

    <p>Casio AL-1000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main limitation of the Monroe Epic programmable calculator?

    <p>It did not have conditional branch logic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the significance of the U.S. semiconductor manufacturers in calculator development?

    <p>They led the world in large scale integration (LSI) semiconductor development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the name of the first Soviet programmable desktop calculator?

    <p>ISKRA 123</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main challenge in developing early electronic calculators?

    <p>Reducing their power consumption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the year when the first all-transistor electronic calculators were introduced?

    <p>1964</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the outcome of using CMOS technology in integrated circuits?

    <p>Reduced power consumption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of displays required additional driver transistors or ICs?

    <p>VFD</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the significance of the introduction of solar cells as a power source?

    <p>Enabled calculators to be powered by solar cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the status of calculator integrated circuits in 1971?

    <p>They were leading edge technology with low yields and high costs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the characteristic of transistors in CMOS ICs?

    <p>They used power only when they changed state</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the retail price of the Sinclair Cambridge calculator in kit form?

    <p>£5 less than the retail price</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What notation was used by the HP-35 calculator?

    <p>Reverse Polish notation (RPN)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the name of the first Soviet scientific pocket-sized calculator?

    <p>Elektronika B3-18</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the name of the first calculator marketed to the Real Estate industry?

    <p>Loan Arranger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the capacity of the HP-65 programmable pocket calculator?

    <p>100 instructions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the unique feature of the HP-41C calculator?

    <p>Programmable and expandable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the name of the first Soviet pocket battery-powered programmable calculator?

    <p>Elektronika B3-21</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the limitation of the Sinclair calculators?

    <p>Slow and less accurate computations of transcendental functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the significance of the HP-35 calculator?

    <p>It was the first calculator with scientific functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the feature of the Texas Instruments (TI) SR-11 calculator?

    <p>Added key for entering pi (π)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the Elektronika MK-52 calculator used for in the Soviet spacecraft program?

    <p>As a backup of the board computer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the term used to describe the esoteric science of exploiting undocumented features of the Elektronika MK-52 calculator?

    <p>Yeggogology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of display was used in the first pocket-sized calculator, the Busicom LE-120A?

    <p>LED</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the technology used in the Sharp EL-805 calculator?

    <p>Calculator On Substrate (COS) technology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the advantage of LCDs over other display types?

    <p>They were more energy-efficient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the significance of the Casio Mini Card LC-78 calculator?

    <p>It was the first credit-card-sized calculator</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of LCDs were used in calculators in the mid-1970s?

    <p>Field-effect, twisted nematic (TN) LCDs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the error message displayed on the Elektronika MK-52 calculator?

    <p>YEGGOG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the significance of the Busicom LC calculator?

    <p>It was the first calculator announced with an LCD display, but it was never released</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the advantage of the Sharp EL-805 calculator over other calculators?

    <p>It was more energy-efficient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which company developed the first handheld calculator called Cal Tech?

    <p>Texas Instruments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the significance of the Sharp QT-8B 'micro Compet'?

    <p>It was one of the first commercially produced portable calculators</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the name of the first European-made pocket-sized calculator?

    <p>DB 800</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the price of the Bowmar 901B when it was released?

    <p>US$240</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the name of the company that introduced the first 'calculator on a chip', the MK6010?

    <p>Mostek</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which company collaborated with General Instrument in ICs and introduced their first single chip calculator IC?

    <p>Pico Electronics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the weight of the Sharp EL-8, also marketed as the Facit 1111?

    <p>1.59 pounds (721 grams)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the name of the first handheld calculator to use an LED display?

    <p>LE-120A 'HANDY'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the name of the company that released five pocket calculators in 1972?

    <p>Eldorado Electrodata</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the price of the Sinclair Executive when it was released?

    <p>£79 (US$194)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of authority is involved when decisions are made by individuals at the bedside?

    <p>Decentralized authority</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of working arrangement groups employees by discipline, with similar tasks being performed by the same group?

    <p>Functional working arrangement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a service-line working arrangement?

    <p>Grouping all functions needed to produce a service together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a decentralized authority structure, who is involved in making clinical decisions?

    <p>Doctors, nurses, and other registered professionals, along with the patient and carers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of decisions are usually made centrally in a healthcare organization?

    <p>Purchasing supplies and equipment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a service-line in a healthcare organization?

    <p>Musculoskeletal service</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of service planning in an organization?

    <p>To identify the resources required to meet future demand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between service planning and the strategic plan of an organization?

    <p>The strategic plan reconciles service planning between areas and makes adjustments where necessary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the ultimate goal of service planning in an organization?

    <p>To deliver a service that aligns with the organization's mission and vision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of values in an organization?

    <p>To form a basis for behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a vision statement in an organization?

    <p>To inspire and motivate employees</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between the organization's mission and vision?

    <p>The mission is a broad statement of the organization's reason for existence, while the vision is a specific goal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of strategic planning in an organization?

    <p>To focus energies, resources, and actions into the future</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of constructive organizational culture?

    <p>Focus on self-actualisation and humanism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the level at which strategic planning is typically undertaken?

    <p>Board level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the time frame for which organizations typically project their goals and activities during strategic planning?

    <p>Two to five years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of service planning in an organization?

    <p>To align services with the organization's goals and mission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an essential activity in successful organizations?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is conflict in a healthcare setting?

    <p>The consequence of real or perceived differences in goals, values, ideas, attitudes, beliefs, feelings, or actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of conflict occurs within one individual?

    <p>Intrapersonal conflict</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is learning how to deal with conflict essential for success in a healthcare organization?

    <p>Because it is a difficult problem managers and leaders face</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What turns differences into conflict in a healthcare setting?

    <p>The meaning we attribute to the difference and how we respond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which conflict management strategy is considered the most effective means for solving conflicts?

    <p>Confrontation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of a leader/manager in managing conflicts in a healthcare organization?

    <p>To prevent conflicts, respond when involved in differences, and support those in conflict to restore good working relationships</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of the confrontation conflict management strategy?

    <p>To achieve a win-win solution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what type of conflicts is mediation particularly beneficial?

    <p>Personal conflicts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is essential for success in a healthcare organization?

    <p>Learning how to deal with conflict</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of an integrative decision-making process in a healthcare organization?

    <p>To find a solution that meets the needs of all parties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of a mediator in the conflict resolution process?

    <p>To facilitate a mutually agreed solution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common source of conflict in healthcare organizations?

    <p>Different values and beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When should confrontation be delivered in a conflict resolution process?

    <p>In private as soon as possible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can lead to role ambiguity in healthcare organizations?

    <p>Overlapping responsibilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of the mediation process in conflict resolution?

    <p>To provide participants with the opportunity to express their feelings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the atmosphere that encourages the free exchange of ideas and feelings in a healthcare organization?

    <p>Collaborative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do individuals in healthcare organizations have different views on what constitutes quality patient care?

    <p>Due to their different values and beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of integrative decision-making in a healthcare organization?

    <p>A solution that satisfies all parties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of disruptive conflict in the workplace?

    <p>Focusing on differences between parties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of disruptive behavior in a conflict between a mental health team leader and the head of occupational therapy?

    <p>Refusing to attend meetings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common source of disruptive conflict at work?

    <p>Differences in values, beliefs, opinions, actions, and ideas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of disruptive conflict in unusual circumstances?

    <p>Upsetting or violent behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a situation that can lead to disruptive conflict?

    <p>Two nurses disagreeing on the level of support a patient needs at home</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical atmosphere in which disruptive conflict takes place?

    <p>Fear, anger, and distress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a person's preference for conflict response?

    <p>Their experience and assessment of risk</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of Competing in conflict response?

    <p>An all-out effort to win, to defend, or to be judged right</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for Avoiding in conflict response?

    <p>A fear of the other person or fear of making things worse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common behavior associated with Competing in conflict response?

    <p>Blaming and criticizing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of a person's choice of conflict response strategy?

    <p>It is based on their experience and assessment of risk</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between a person's experience and their conflict response strategy?

    <p>A person's experience influences their conflict response strategy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key aspect of creating a positive conflict environment?

    <p>Encouraging openness and honesty in communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of understanding antecedent conditions for conflict?

    <p>To understand the conditions that make conflict more likely</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the leader/manager in managing conflict?

    <p>To create a positive conflict environment and enlist others to help solve conflicts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of replacing BCD with QRS in conflict management?

    <p>Improved communication and respect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of individuals who use an accommodating response to conflict?

    <p>To prioritize the concerns of the other person over their own</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of conflict?

    <p>It is a dynamic process that can lead to change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what type of situation is accommodating more likely to occur?

    <p>When dealing with someone of higher power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of an antecedent condition for conflict?

    <p>Incompatible goals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential drawback of compromising in a conflict?

    <p>Parties may feel they have somehow failed, and underlying needs may go unaddressed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between accommodation and compromise?

    <p>Accommodation involves giving in, while compromise involves finding a middle ground</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential benefit of accommodating in a conflict?

    <p>It can build rapport and goodwill, leading to future advantages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of response to conflict is accommodation often seen as?

    <p>A passive response, aimed at ending conflict or reducing tension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key to avoiding conflict and developing a healthy working relationship?

    <p>Changing your assumptions about the person</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to McCannon and McCannon (2008), what type of thinking often creates conflict?

    <p>Resistant way of thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a conflict starter behavior?

    <p>Blaming</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do people have assumptions about other groups?

    <p>Based on their experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when we don't examine our assumptions about others?

    <p>We become more resistant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of having unexamined assumptions about others?

    <p>Increased conflict</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Electronic Calculators

    • An electronic calculator is a portable electronic device used to perform calculations, ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics.
    • The first solid-state electronic calculator was created in the early 1960s.

    Design and Input

    • Electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations.
    • Some calculators have "00" and "000" buttons to make larger or smaller numbers easier to enter.
    • Most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button.
    • Some calculators have multi-function working with key combinations.

    Display Output

    • Calculators usually have liquid-crystal displays (LCD) as output, replacing historical light-emitting diode (LED) displays and vacuum fluorescent displays (VFD).
    • Large-sized figures are often used to improve readability.
    • Calculators use decimal separators (usually a point rather than a comma) instead of or in addition to vulgar fractions.

    Memory

    • Calculators have the ability to save numbers into computer memory.
    • Basic calculators usually store only one number at a time.
    • More specific types of calculators can store many numbers represented in variables.
    • Variables can be used for constructing formulas.

    Power Sources

    • Power sources of calculators include batteries, solar cells, or mains electricity (for old models).
    • Calculators turn on with a switch or button.

    Internal Workings

    • A basic electronic calculator consists of a clock rate of a processor chip, which refers to the frequency at which the central processing unit (CPU) is running.
    • The speed of a calculator can vary from a few hundred hertz to the kilohertz range.
    • Calculators perform calculations using binary-coded decimal (BCD) rather than binary.

    Historical Development

    • The first known tools used to aid arithmetic calculations were bones, pebbles, and counting boards, and the abacus.
    • Development of computing tools began in the 17th century with the invention of the mechanical calculator.
    • In the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution led to the refinement of manufacturing and fabrication processes, making large-scale production of more compact and modern units possible.
    • The first commercially successful electronic calculator was the Arithmometer, invented in 1820 and released to production in 1851.
    • The familiar push-button user interface was developed in 1902 with the introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine.
    • The Curta calculator was developed in 1948 and remained popular for its portability.

    Electronic Calculators (Cont.)

    • The first electronic calculator was the Casio Computer Company's Model 14-A, released in 1957.
    • The IBM 608 plugboard programmable calculator was IBM's first all-transistor product, released in 1957.
    • The first all-electronic desktop calculator, the British Bell Punch/Sumlock Comptometer ANITA, was announced in October 1961.
    • The Friden EC-130, introduced in June 1963, had an all-transistor design and a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a 5-inch CRT.

    Programmable Calculators

    • The first desktop programmable calculators were produced in the mid-1960s, including the Mathatronics Mathatron and the Olivetti Programma 101.
    • The Monroe Epic programmable calculator came on the market in 1967.
    • The first Soviet programmable desktop calculator, ISKRA 123, was released at the start of the 1970s.

    Pocket Calculators

    • The first handheld calculator was a 1967 prototype called Cal Tech, developed by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments.

    • The first commercially produced portable calculators appeared in Japan in 1970, including the Sanyo ICC-0081, the Canon Pocketronic, and the Sharp QT-8B.

    • The first "calculator on a chip" was the MK6010 by Mostek, introduced in 1971.

    • The Busicom LE-120A "HANDY" was the first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator, marketed in 1971.### Early Pocket Calculators

    • The first European-made pocket-sized calculator, DB 800, was manufactured in May 1971 by Digitron in Buje, Croatia, with four functions and an eight-digit display.

    • The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B, was released in Autumn 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red LED display, priced at $240.

    • The first slimline pocket calculator, the Sinclair Executive, was introduced in August 1972, measuring 5.4 by 2.2 by 0.35 inches and weighing 2.5 ounces, priced at £79 (approximately $194).

    Development of Pocket Calculators

    • By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than £5 ($6.85).
    • Eldorado Electrodata released five pocket calculators in 1972, including the Touch Magic, which was "no bigger than a pack of cigarettes".
    • The first Soviet Union-made pocket-sized calculator, the Elektronika B3-04, was developed by the end of 1973 and sold at the start of 1974.

    Scientific Pocket Calculators

    • The first scientific pocket calculator, the HP-35, was launched in early 1972, with scientific functions that could replace a slide rule, priced at $395.
    • The HP-35 used reverse Polish notation (RPN) and had 35 buttons, based on the Mostek Mk6020 chip.
    • The first Soviet scientific pocket-sized calculator, the "B3-18", was completed by the end of 1975.

    Programmable Pocket Calculators

    • The first programmable pocket calculator, the HP-65, was released in 1974, with a capacity of 100 instructions and a built-in magnetic card reader.
    • The HP-25C introduced continuous memory in 1976, where programs and data were retained in CMOS memory during power-off.
    • The first alphanumeric, programmable, expandable calculator, the HP-41C, was released in 1979, with the ability to be expanded with RAM and ROM modules.

    Technical Improvements

    • The red LED and blue/green vacuum fluorescent displays consumed a lot of power, leading to short battery life or large batteries.
    • The first successful calculators with LCDs were manufactured by Rockwell International in 1972, with a Dynamic Scattering Mode (DSM) display.
    • The first credit-card-sized calculators, such as the Casio Mini Card LC-78, appeared in 1978, with a TN LCD display and a low power consumption.
    • The power consumption of integrated circuits was reduced with the introduction of CMOS technology, allowing for the use of solar cells as the power source.

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    Description

    Learn about the development of electronic calculators from the first solid-state device to modern portable devices. Discover the key milestones and innovations that made calculators a ubiquitous tool.

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