History of Computing

Computing Objectives

• Today, nearly everyone is a computer operator due to the proliferation of computers.
• It's important to understand the predecessors of modern hardware and software.
• Tracing the development across generations sheds light on current technology.
• Sometimes good ideas fail while inferior ones succeed due to various factors.
• Studying computing history introduces interesting, well-known and obscure figures.
• Understanding the issues facing contemporary computing is essential.

The Importance of Knowing the History of Computing

• Computers have become pervasive in modern life, including communication, arts, information, entertainment, and transportation
• Computers are applied to many facets of design, from architecture to CAD
• Computer have become enormous information archives
• Computers are used for entertianment devices
• Computers enable trains, planes, and automobiles
• The revolution in computing was a result of combined factors.
• History can give us insight into what the future holds for computing.

A Brief History

• In the 1950s, vacuum tubes functioned as memory and data was stored on magnetic mediums.
• The first software innovations and the first hardware development with transistors occurred in the late 1950s.
• Second generation introduced hardware development including Operation and RAM Systems
• The third generation introduced integrated circuits and semiconductor chips.
• Parallel computing (SIMD, MIMD) emerged with the introduction of the forth generation in th 1990's.
• What comes next for computing, relies on our advancement of cation.

Pascal and Leibniz: Early Mechanical Computation

• Prior to electronic computers, paper, wood, and stone were used for calculations.
• The slide rule was invented in 1622.
• Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator in 1642, performing addition and subtraction.
• The Leibniz Wheel, developed in 1694, expanded calculator operations to include multiplication and division.

Joseph Jacquard: Programmable Looms Pave the Way

• Developed programmable looms in 1801.
• Looms worked by weaving specific fabrics
• His loom allowed, for the first time, input and storage of parameters
• The looms used selection pins with punch cards
• The system functions in a similar way to a player piano
• The system introduced to the concept of a stored program

Charles Babbage: Conceptualizing the Modern Computer

• Babbage invented the Difference Engine in 1823, which could add, subtract, multiply, and divide.
• Babbage designed the Analytical Engine, a conceptual precursor to the modern computer.
• The Analytical Engine's theoretical design included input/output devices, memory, and a CPU.
• The Analytical Engine was never actually built due to lack of funding.
• Ada Lovelace Byron collaborated and is credited with the concept of the program loop.
• Ada Lovelace Byron's name stands as namesake of the Ada Programming Language

Herman Hollerith: Automating Data Tabulation

• Hollerith invented an electromechanical counter in the 1880s.
• The counter was used for tabulation role in the 1890 US census.
• The counter utilized punch cards as input.
• The system was single-purpose machine
• The company created around the technology became IBM.
• IBM launched the multi-purpose Mark I in 1944.
• Mark I was quickly superseded by vacuum tubes.

Advances Leading to Electronic Computers

• Charles Sanders Peirce expanded the work of Boole.
• Electric switches were used to emulate true/false conditions.
• Benjamin Burack implements concepts in a 1936 logic machine
• John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry constructed a computer using vacuum tubes.
• World War II spurred the developmental turning point

Wartime Innovations in Computing

• The need for trajectory tables drove military research.
• The U.S. Navy Board of Ordinance funded the Mark I computer.
• The U.S. Army funded ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer).
• ENIAC achieved speeds 1,000 times faster than the Mark I.
• ENIAC and Mark I were completed too late to aid the war effort.

ENIAC's Strengths, Weaknesses, and Eventual Evolution

• ENIAC was large and loud at 30-tons and filled a basement
• ENIAC required 18,000 vacuum tubes needed constant attention
• ENIAC required 6,000 switches for arithmetic operations
• The machine performed arithmetic and logic operations
• The machine was multi-purpose with symbolic variables
• ENIAC lacked the was unable to modify program contents
• ENIAC had to be programmed externally
• EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) created in 1944.
• EDVAC's architecture became known as the Von Neumann machine.
• EDVAC had a superior model used for descendant computers.
• EDVAC featured operation governed by program in memory
• EDVAC featured programs that could be modified
• EDVAC introduced stored program concept where programs are reusable.
• The British Colossus helped crack the German U-boat Enigma code during World War II.
• All Colossus machines were destroyed by the 1960s.

The Computer Era Begins: First Generation

• Vacuum tubes provided both the logic functions and memory for the machines.
• Magnetic drums and tapes utilized for data storage.
• Paper tape and data cards handled input
• The first line printer made its initial debut
• Instructions were written directly in binary or machine code.
• Assembly language was introduced as the first layer of abstraction.
• Programmers began specializing into system and application engineers.

UNIVAC: The First Commercially Viable Computer

• UNIVAC was the first commercially viable computer
• US Census Bureau was the first customer
• Despite this, the machine face skepticism from Howard Aiken, Mark I
• UNIVAC successfully predicted the 1952 Presidential election outcome during a CBS broadcast.
• Following that first successful prediction, the machine quickly beame adopted by all major news network

IBM Domination

• IBM dominated the mainframe market by the 1960s.
• Strong sales culture drove their power
• IBM controlled 70% of the entire market
• They had a sharp focus on only a few products at a time
• IBM leveraged existing business relationships
• IBM introduced scalable (and hence flexible) systems
• IBM leased systems with 10 to 15 year life spans

Transistors and Software Innovations of the Second Generation

• Assembly language limitations required development of high-level software
• FORTRAN, COBOL, and LISP appeared
• Transistors emerged to replaced vacuum tubes
• RAM becomes available with magnetic cores
• Magnetic disks introduced secondary storage

Integrated Circuits and Operating Systems: The Third Generation

• Integrated Circuits(IC) or Chips contained miniaturized circuit components on boards.
• These chips exhibited semiconductor properties.
• The introduction of integrated circuits decreased cost and size.
• Integrated circuits improved reliability and speed of computers
• Operating Systems (OS) were created so that there was a Program to manage jobs
• An OS would begin to utilize system resources and provide them to applications
• An advancement of Operating Systems, allowed multiple users at once

Moore's Law Drives Miniaturization in the Fourth Generation

• The scale of miniaturization increased, with LSI chips containing up to 15,000 circuits.
• VLSI chips had from 100,000 to 1 million circuits.
• Moore's Law suggests that that circuit density doubles every 1.5 years.
• Memory capacity and speed increased while memory costs dropped.
• The minicomputer industry grew exponentially along with computers
• This marked a new era: The first age of the Microcomputer

Personal Computer Revolution

• Hardware and software engineers drove the introduction of personal computers
• The Iconoclastic software developers sought challenges.
• As equipment became commoditized and hobbyists realized computers could be both affordable and easily attainable, a new revolution was born
• The role of will to support the hardware through software and infrastructure played an important role
• Components were previously were re-purposed for the role

Intel Semiconductors

• Intel created an integrated circuit
• Semiconductors like the Intel 4004 chip contained 4004 transistors aboard and expanded functionality
• The Intel 4004 chip was a Precursor to the Central Processing Unit (CPU) as we know it today
• Gary Kildall would would the fist OS for that Intel microprocessor
• From then on, Software became a separate entities.

The Altair 8800 and Early Personal Computing

• Development was spurred by Popular Electronics, and the Altair 8800 was featured.
• The Altair 8800 was reported on by Ed Roberts.
• The Altair 8800 was a "kit" based on the Intel 8080.
• The Kit was very successful, generating 4000 orders within three months
• The Altair 8800's I/O was constructed similar to ENIACs design
• The computer's Open architecture provided adaptability and was portable

Gates, Allen, and Microsoft

• Gates and Allen developed a BASIC interpreter.
• BASIC became a high level language for microcomputer programmers
• They briefly associate with MITS and go on to work on other projectss
• They would eventually Form Micro-Soft company in 1975.

Radio Shack, $100 Standard, and the Future of MITS Stumble

• Microcomputers became profitable, and Radio Shack, IMSAI, and Sphere got into the industry
• Eventually, the $100 dollar bus became the standard as others joined
• MITS stumbles trying to capitalize on BASIC at the current industry levels.
• MITS linked prices to faulty hardware to BASIC
• MITS developed a new model was incompatible with 8080
• Eventually in 1977, MITS was sold off for it's mistakes
• This opened the door as Hardware companies introduced competing models.

An Apple A Day...

• Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak started Apple in 1976, and offered the Apple I computer.
• 1977, Apple II was developed and released pushing personal computing much further
• Apple II was Based on Motorola 6502 processor
• The design gained respect from industry and hobbyists alike
• The company also promotes application development, so new user could take advantage of the new hardware
• As an application, the VisiCalc spreadsheet program drives Apple II sales and was know as a "killer app"
• VisiCalc drew attention of much wider business community, making it crucial for early businesses

IBM Enters the Personal Computing Market

• IBM entered the microcomputer industry, building a system with new ideas
• They built the systems using off the shelf hardware
• IBM adopted a non-proprietary CPU
• Create approachable documentation for beginners
• Provide an open architecture

Microsoft and MS-DOS

• IBM chose Microsoft to create it's IBM OS
• Microsoft re-purposed the system and introduced MS-DOS
• The repurposed the system based on Kildall’s 8 bit CP/M and then enhanced it
• It could Runs on 16 bit CPU, the Intel 8088
• MS-DOS rose to become the biggest PC operting system

XeroxPARC Inspires the Macintosh

• Steve Jobs visited XeroxPARC and learned a lot of the modern tools
• On the systems they demonstrated Alto: graphics, menus, icons, windows, mouse
• Xerox's systems Featured a functioning Ethernet network
• The systems demonstrated hypertext in action
• Building on the the Xerox ideas
• The next generation Apple computer Picked up where Xerox, focused on copiers, leaves off, and went much further
• It Incorporated many Palo Alto components in Macintosh and added a lot more features
• The result would become the basis of the Apple Macintosh Unveiled
• The system came included with a Graphical user interface (GUI)
• Users could navigate the system with a Mouse

The Rise of the PC Clones

• As Microsoft adapted the PC as the standard, a new era of computing emerged
• Microsoft argued that there should be an Adapt open architecture concept to OS, and allow anyone to create devices
• Microsoft would also be given freedom to license the OS
• As an answer to Apple, Microsoft created the next gen MS Windows
• Windows 3.1 incorporated Mac’s GUI features, allowing it to enter the market
• This led to competing PC clones appear with Microsoft’s OS, commoditizing the industry

The Emergence of the Internet

• ARPA was born, and brought many advantages for computing
• In order to connect them together they needed to agree on a common way to speak
• In order to survive as an inter-connected-system, fault tolerance was needed
• In 1969: ARPANET was born with these new characteristics in mind
• ARPANET linked (4) computers, in (4) different locations
• Different OSs were connected, linked with Interface Message Processor (IMP)
• ARPANET grew rapidly, new protocols and communication methods were needed, new
• As the internet took a huge leap, protocols were created where it allowed easy entry into network from anyone
• Eventually 2/3 of network becomes email

From LANs to the WorldWideWeb

• The Internet became the network of networks, as local LANs were connected over WAN with new technologies like
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Urban Area Network (UAN)
• This required technologies
• Technologies like Ethernet
• Fiberoptics, for extra bandwidth
• Wireless technologies

Object-Oriented Programming and the World Wide Web

• Software made huge advancements at this time
• Object-oriented programming allowed new forms of software to take shape
• Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) allowed designers
• In1990: Tim Berners-Lee created the technology for the Modern Web. developed the system using hypertext with a Prototype browser created on NeXT computer
• Modern Browsers began to exist, like that used by Marc Andreesen and Mosaic
• Microsoft would soon enter this world and come out with their own new new, Internet Explorer
• All modern Websistes are constructed with Web components consisting of
  • Web pages
  • Browser
  • And network technology

The Microsoft Era and More

• Microsoft had been the standard on PC for a while, resulting in the “browser wars” a time where
  • Microsoft integrates IE browser into future version of Windows and locks out everyone else
  • Netscape pushes against Microsoft, creating the open source movement Many legal battle followed,
  • US government file antitrust suit against Microsoft
  • By 2001 most of antitrust suit dropped or lessened
• During all of this the Linux OS threatens Windows
  • Providing Low cost, open source, reliability as it's traits and benefits
• Microsoft eventually would make steps for itself as it grew
  • Eventually, the company would reach 10 percent of world’s software
  • Despite it's size, today Microsoft still remains a small software player outside of PC

Parallel Computing, Wireless Networking, and Computing Everywhere

• There is continued advancement on Parallel Computing where we have computers
  • With Massive amplification of computing power, that
  • Can be hosted by local networks as well as Internet
• Wireless Networking became the standard thanks to
  • Technologies like Bluetooth
  • As the technology gets smaller, smaller Embedded or ubiquitous computing will change out lives
• The Digitization of Economy will change how the world will move
• Constant privacy and security is critical in these highly computerized times
• The Open source movement is here to stay as it allows for wider community advancements

One Last Thought

• Development of computers exists due to needs and wants
• And is driven by complex and interlocked forces
  • Commercial and physical requirements of integrated circuits, will keep pushing development forward
  • We must have solve problems, and to keep creating, and for The need to succeed. By studying computers evolution
  • We can avoid mistakes and emulate triumphs from the past.

Summary

• The evolution of computers is tied to the evolution of mathematics and driven by the need to master time and space.
• The core goal of computers remains manipulating mathematical and linguistic symbols.
• Many civilizations have contributed to the evolution of computers and computer science.
• Mechanical calculators emerged in the 17th century due to the work of Pascal and Leibniz.
• The Jacquard Loom introduced punch cards and the concept of a stored program.
• Charles Babbage designed the modern computer prototype, known as the Analytical Engine.
• Herman Hollerith incorporated punch cards in his data driven machines.
• World War II greatly accelerated computing innovation, creating ENIAC, Mark I, and Colossus.
• EDVAC's Von Neumann architecture is the basic model used from then on.
• Integrated circuits significantly increased speed, shrunk computers, and lowered costs.
• The microcomputer and Internet have made computers an ubiquitous feature.