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Questions and Answers
What was the primary purpose of the ENIAC computer when it was first developed?
What was the primary purpose of the ENIAC computer when it was first developed?
What significant concept did John von Neumann contribute to computer architecture?
What significant concept did John von Neumann contribute to computer architecture?
Which of the following describes a major drawback of the first generation of computers?
Which of the following describes a major drawback of the first generation of computers?
What advancement characterized the second generation of computers?
What advancement characterized the second generation of computers?
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Which two computers are noted as important members of the third generation?
Which two computers are noted as important members of the third generation?
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What does Moore's Law state regarding the number of transistors on a chip?
What does Moore's Law state regarding the number of transistors on a chip?
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What memory technology was introduced around 1970 that significantly impacted computing?
What memory technology was introduced around 1970 that significantly impacted computing?
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Which Intel microprocessor was recognized as the first to have all components of a CPU on a single chip?
Which Intel microprocessor was recognized as the first to have all components of a CPU on a single chip?
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What was a major benefit provided by the use of integrated circuits in third generation computers?
What was a major benefit provided by the use of integrated circuits in third generation computers?
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What are the characteristics of large scale integration (LSI) technology in computer development?
What are the characteristics of large scale integration (LSI) technology in computer development?
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What is the main benefit of pipelining in contemporary processors?
What is the main benefit of pipelining in contemporary processors?
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How does speculative execution enhance a processor's performance?
How does speculative execution enhance a processor's performance?
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Which architectural strategy maximizes performance without increasing clock speed?
Which architectural strategy maximizes performance without increasing clock speed?
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What is a major concern with increasing clock speeds in processors?
What is a major concern with increasing clock speeds in processors?
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What is one of the primary limitations affecting the speed of electrons in computer chips?
What is one of the primary limitations affecting the speed of electrons in computer chips?
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What do larger caches in a processor mainly improve?
What do larger caches in a processor mainly improve?
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How does the use of a cache buffering scheme in DRAM increase efficiency?
How does the use of a cache buffering scheme in DRAM increase efficiency?
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What is the purpose of branch prediction in processors?
What is the purpose of branch prediction in processors?
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What characterizes the many integrated core (MIC) architecture?
What characterizes the many integrated core (MIC) architecture?
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What is a primary function of a Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)?
What is a primary function of a Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)?
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What is Amdahl's Law primarily concerned with?
What is Amdahl's Law primarily concerned with?
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What does Little's Law relate to in a queuing system?
What does Little's Law relate to in a queuing system?
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Which of the following is not a characteristic of embedded systems?
Which of the following is not a characteristic of embedded systems?
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Which generation of computers used vacuum tubes?
Which generation of computers used vacuum tubes?
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What is the primary goal of adapting software for multi-core machines?
What is the primary goal of adapting software for multi-core machines?
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Which of the following best describes the term 'embedded system'?
Which of the following best describes the term 'embedded system'?
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What does Amdahl's Law imply for the design of multi-core processors?
What does Amdahl's Law imply for the design of multi-core processors?
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How often is Little's Law applicable?
How often is Little's Law applicable?
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Which performance metric does NOT typically influence computer design?
Which performance metric does NOT typically influence computer design?
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What is typically true of microprocessors in the context of embedded systems?
What is typically true of microprocessors in the context of embedded systems?
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Study Notes
History of Computers
-
First Generation (Vacuum Tubes):
- ENIAC was the world's first general-purpose electronic digital computer, built in 1946.
- Designed by John Mauchly and John Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania for the Army's BRL.
- Initial purpose was to create accurate trajectory tables for new weapons but was operational post-WWII.
- First task involved calculations relevant to hydrogen bomb feasibility.
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Second Generation (Transistors):
- Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, allowing computers to become smaller, cheaper, and more efficient.
- Transistors were invented at Bell Labs in 1947, with widespread commercial use beginning in the late 1950s.
- High-level programming languages and system software emerged, leading to the rise of mini-computers.
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Third Generation (Integrated Circuits):
- Integrated circuits invented in 1958 revolutionized computer design by allowing discrete components to be packaged together.
- Significant systems were IBM System/360 and DEC PDP-8.
- Manufacturing integrated circuits was complex and costly but led to reductions in size and improved performance.
Key Concepts in Computer Organization
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Von Neumann Architecture:
- Introduced the stored program concept where data and programs reside in memory.
- Systems like IAS served as prototypes for future general-purpose computers with significant innovations in memory architecture.
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Microprocessor Development:
- The first microprocessor, Intel 4004, was developed in 1971, containing all CPU components on a single chip.
- Subsequent models like Intel 8008 and 8080 enhanced processing capabilities, marking significant advances in computational power.
Performance Enhancements
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Moore's Law:
- Proposed by Gordon Moore in 1965, stating that the number of transistors on chips doubles approximately every 18 months.
- Consequences include reduced costs, increased performance, and smaller device sizes.
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Microprocessor Techniques:
- Implementations such as pipelining and branch prediction improve operational efficiency by allowing simultaneous data processing and instruction prediction.
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Multicore and Parallel Processing:
- Use of multiple simpler processors (multicore) on a chip increases performance without enhancing clock speed.
- Larger caches combined with multiple cores enable efficient data handling and processing.
Memory and Storage Developments
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Semiconductor Memory Advances:
- First capacitous semiconductor memory introduced in 1970, marked by a rapid decrease in cost and increase in density.
- Memory technologies have advanced through 13 generations, each providing fourfold increases in storage density and performance.
-
Cache Enhancements:
- Increased hardware speed is achieved by optimizing cache sizes and speeds, crucial for reducing access time and improving performance.
Challenges in Computer Architecture
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Power and Heat Management:
- Power density and heat dissipation are critical challenges as circuit density and clock speeds increase.
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Latency Issues:
- Memory latencies can hinder processor performance, as memory access speeds often fall behind processing speeds.
Embedded Systems
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Definition & Function:
- Embedded systems integrate computer hardware and software tailored for specific tasks or dedicated functions, enabling effective applications in various fields.### Embedded Systems
- Embedded systems are often integral to larger systems or products, such as car antilock braking systems.
- These systems blend hardware and software to perform dedicated functions within a more complex environment.
Amdahl's Law
- Amdahl’s Law predicts the speedup of a program when using multiple processors compared to a single processor.
- It highlights challenges in developing multi-core machines, emphasizing the need for software adaptation to take advantage of parallel execution.
- This law can aid in evaluating and designing improvements in computer systems.
Little's Law
- Little's Law offers a simple, fundamental relationship applicable to many systems in steady states without item loss.
- In queuing theory, if a server is busy, arriving items join a queue; if idle, they are served immediately.
- The average number of items in a queuing system equals the arrival rate of items multiplied by the average time spent in the system.
- Its simplicity makes Little's Law a highly useful tool across various disciplines.
Computer Evolution and Performance
- The evolution of computers has progressed through three generations:
- First Generation: Utilized vacuum tubes.
- Second Generation: Employed transistors.
- Third Generation: Used integrated circuits.
- Multi-core systems include many integrated cores (MICs) and general-purpose graphics processing units (GPGPUs).
- Intel x86 architecture has evolved significantly over time, impacting performance assessments.
- Key performance metrics include clock speed, instructions per second, benchmarks, and their balance in system design.
Key Terms
- Amdahl’s Law: Describes the limits of performance improvements from parallel processing.
- Benchmark: A test used to measure performance.
- Chip: A small piece of semiconducting material with integrated circuits.
- Clock Cycle: Basic unit of time in a computer's processor.
- Embedded System: A computer system with a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electrical system.
- Microprocessor: The main processing unit of a computer.
- Multicore: Technology with multiple processing units on a single chip.
- Integrated Circuit (IC): A set of electronic circuits on a small chip.
- Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): A specialized processor designed for rendering graphics.
- Additional terms include stored-program concept, von Neumann machine, instruction set, and cycle types (fetch, execute, instruction).
Homework Assignments
- Exercises to reinforce understanding are numbered 2.2, 2.5, 2.9, 2.10, 2.13, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, and 2.18 for further exploration of concepts discussed.
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Description
Explore the evolution of computers with this quiz covering the first and second generations. Learn about the groundbreaking work of pioneers like John Mauchly and John Eckert, and how the transition from vacuum tubes to transistors changed computing technology. Test your knowledge on key milestones and technological advancements in computer history.
