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Questions and Answers
Which entities are identified as the two major forces contributing to advancements in the computer industry?
Which entities are identified as the two major forces contributing to advancements in the computer industry?
- Software developers and hardware manufacturers
- Government regulations and private citizens
- Global corporations and non-profit organizations
- University research centers and computer companies (correct)
What type of machines are built to serve specific applications?
What type of machines are built to serve specific applications?
- Hybrid machines
- General purpose machines
- Special purpose machines (correct)
- Universal machines
Which of the following defines the interface between the basic machine instruction set and the runtime and I/O control?
Which of the following defines the interface between the basic machine instruction set and the runtime and I/O control?
- Network architecture
- System architecture
- Language architecture
- Instruction set architecture (correct)
In the definition of computer architecture, what does 'performance' refer to?
In the definition of computer architecture, what does 'performance' refer to?
What is the role of application programs in the layered abstraction levels of computer systems?
What is the role of application programs in the layered abstraction levels of computer systems?
What aspect of computer architecture is defined by the interconnection of various hardware components?
What aspect of computer architecture is defined by the interconnection of various hardware components?
What is primarily emphasized by general purpose machines?
What is primarily emphasized by general purpose machines?
How is 'organization' defined in the context of computer architecture?
How is 'organization' defined in the context of computer architecture?
What is the overall CPI for the execution of 100 instructions on machine A?
What is the overall CPI for the execution of 100 instructions on machine A?
Which category of instructions has the highest occurrence on machine A?
Which category of instructions has the highest occurrence on machine A?
In calculating MIPS, what does the 'execution time' depend on?
In calculating MIPS, what does the 'execution time' depend on?
For machine B, which instruction category has the lowest cycles per instruction?
For machine B, which instruction category has the lowest cycles per instruction?
What is the standard clock rate used for calculating MIPS in the examples?
What is the standard clock rate used for calculating MIPS in the examples?
How does the CPI relate to the organization and instruction set architecture of a processor?
How does the CPI relate to the organization and instruction set architecture of a processor?
What does MIPS measure in a computing system?
What does MIPS measure in a computing system?
Which statement is true regarding the execution of a set of benchmark programs on two different machines?
Which statement is true regarding the execution of a set of benchmark programs on two different machines?
What is the relationship between clock cycle time (CT) and clock frequency (f)?
What is the relationship between clock cycle time (CT) and clock frequency (f)?
How is CPU time calculated using cycle count (CC) and cycle time (CT)?
How is CPU time calculated using cycle count (CC) and cycle time (CT)?
Which of the following best defines the average number of clock cycles per instruction (CPI)?
Which of the following best defines the average number of clock cycles per instruction (CPI)?
What components are multiplied to find the total CPU time using the instruction count?
What components are multiplied to find the total CPU time using the instruction count?
In calculating the overall CPI, what does Ii represent?
In calculating the overall CPI, what does Ii represent?
Which of the following statements regarding performance measures is true?
Which of the following statements regarding performance measures is true?
What calculation can be performed if the clock rate is known?
What calculation can be performed if the clock rate is known?
What does the cycle count (CC) specifically refer to?
What does the cycle count (CC) specifically refer to?
What was the primary purpose of the ENIAC machine?
What was the primary purpose of the ENIAC machine?
What was a significant improvement introduced with the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)?
What was a significant improvement introduced with the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)?
Which of the following machines was the first full-scale, stored-program computer?
Which of the following machines was the first full-scale, stored-program computer?
What concept did the machines introduced at Harvard (MARK I, II, III, and IV) utilize?
What concept did the machines introduced at Harvard (MARK I, II, III, and IV) utilize?
When was the first general-purpose commercial computer, UNIVAC I, released?
When was the first general-purpose commercial computer, UNIVAC I, released?
What was the status of the computer industry in the early 1950s?
What was the status of the computer industry in the early 1950s?
What was a notable feature of the IBM 360 series introduced in 1964?
What was a notable feature of the IBM 360 series introduced in 1964?
Which company introduced the first minicomputer?
Which company introduced the first minicomputer?
What happens to the speedup, SUo, when enhancement is available 100% of the time?
What happens to the speedup, SUo, when enhancement is available 100% of the time?
If enhancement was only possible for 30% of the time, what is the calculated speedup?
If enhancement was only possible for 30% of the time, what is the calculated speedup?
Which formula correctly represents the speedup when considering multiple independent enhancements?
Which formula correctly represents the speedup when considering multiple independent enhancements?
What does the acronym CPI stand for in performance measures?
What does the acronym CPI stand for in performance measures?
What was a significant historical advancement mentioned in the chapter regarding computer systems?
What was a significant historical advancement mentioned in the chapter regarding computer systems?
Which architectural styles are compared in the chapter?
Which architectural styles are compared in the chapter?
What impacts the performance measures of a computer system?
What impacts the performance measures of a computer system?
What common performance measures were introduced in the chapter?
What common performance measures were introduced in the chapter?
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Study Notes
Computer Systems History
- The development of computers is due to the combined efforts of University research centers and the computer industry.
- The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) was the first operational general-purpose computer, built in 1944 using vacuum tubes.
- ENIAC was designed for computing artillery firing tables during World War II.
- The Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) was an improved version of ENIAC, focused on stored programs and more efficient program input.
- The Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) built a computer in 1946, about 10 times faster than ENIAC.
- The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) was the first full-scale, stored-program, fully operational computer in 1949.
- Cambridge University built the EDSAC, inspired by the EDVAC project.
Computer Architecture
- Computer systems can be defined by different levels of abstraction, each providing functional support to the previous level.
- These layers can include application programs, high-level languages, and machine instructions.
- Language architecture refers to the interface between application programs and high-level languages.
- Instruction set architecture defines the interface between the basic machine instruction set and the runtime and I/O control.
- Computer architecture can also be defined by four viewpoints: structure, organization, implementation, and performance.
- Structure defines the interconnection of hardware components, while organization defines the dynamic interplay and management of these components.
- Implementation focuses on the detailed design of hardware components, and performance specifies the system's behavior.
Performance Measures
- Computer performance can be measured by CPU time, which is the time taken to execute a job.
- CPU time is calculated using the cycle count (CC), cycle time (CT), and clock frequency (f).
- Clock cycles allow for counting unit computations as storage is synchronized with clock edges.
- CPU time formula: CPU time = CC * CT = CC/f.
- Average number of clock cycles per instruction (CPI) is another performance measure, useful for comparing instruction categories.
- CPI formula: CPI = CPU clock cycles for the program / Instruction count.
- CPI reflects the processor's organization and instruction set architecture, while instruction count reflects instruction set architecture and compiler technology.
- MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second) is a performance measure that indicates the rate of instruction execution per unit time.
- MIPS formula: MIPS = Instruction count / (Execution time * 10^6 * CPI * 10^6).
Speedup
- SUo represents the speedup of a system after enhancement.
- SUD represents the speedup due to the enhancement.
- D represents the fraction of time the enhancement is applied.
- Speedup formula: SUo = 1 / ((1 - D) + (D / SUD)).
- This formula helps understand the impact of partial enhancement application.
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