History of Chemistry

• The history of chemistry includes the primitive era, the Greeks, alchemy, iatrochemistry, the phlogiston theory, and modern chemistry.
• Primitive era chemistry involved the use of fire, gunpowder, and metal extraction.
• The Greeks proposed four elements and the atomic theory.
• Alchemy in Egypt and Mesopotamia sought the philosopher's stone.
• Iatrochemistry focused on medical chemistry and experimental methods.
• The phlogiston theory involved the substance of fire.
• Modern chemistry includes oxidation, atomic theory, molecules, the periodic table, chemical equilibrium, acids, bases, and radiation.

Branches of Chemistry

• Nano chemistry
• Petrochemistry
• Preparative chemistry
• Chemiurgy
• Astrochemistry
• Quantum chemistry
• Analytical chemistry
• Biochemistry
• Physical chemistry
• Industrial chemistry
• Environmental chemistry
• Crystallochemistry
• Pharmaceutical chemistry

Chemical Products

• The discovery of elements, compounds, and other important products.
• Examples include gunpowder (saltpeter, sulfur, charcoal).
• Greek Fire (quicklime, petroleum, sulfur).
• Phosphorus
• Alum
• Ammonia
• Sulfuric acid
• Nitric acid
• Sodium hydroxide

Iatrochemistry (XVI Century)

• Iatrochemistry is a fusion of chemistry and medicine
• It seeks chemical explanations for pathological and physiological processes of the human body.
• It aims to provide treatments with chemical substances.
• It is considered the precursor of biochemistry.
• Paracelsus, a Swiss alchemist, was a key leader and founder of iatrochemistry.
• Iatrochemists believed physiology depended on fluid balance in specific bodily fluids.

Utensils

• Alchemists introduced valuable experimentation instruments.
• Examples include the balance, alembic, and crucible.

Law of Conservation of Mass

• The law of conservation of mass states that mass is conserved in chemical reactions.
• The mass of the reactants consumed equals the mass of the products obtained.
• Mass is never created or destroyed, only transformed and remains invariable.

Lavoisier

• Antoine Lavoisier, also known as the Newton of chemistry, is considered the creator of modern chemistry.
• He conducted detailed studies on oxidation of bodies, animal respiration, air analysis, the use of the balance to establish quantitative relationships in chemical reactions, and calorimetry studies.
• Lavoisier established his famous law of conservation of mass.
• Lavoisier's work clarified confusion among chemists and led to advancements in chemistry.

Organic Chemistry

• Studies compounds containing carbon/hydrogen bonds e.g. hydrocarbons, polymers, and proteins.
• Covers all natural elements and organic tissues.
• Provides solutions for life quality improvement in areas like hygiene and health.

Inorganic Chemistry

• Studies the formation, composition, structure, and chemical reactions of inorganic elements and compounds.
• Inorganic elements and compounds do not contain carbon/hydrogen bonds e.g. metals, minerals, or ceramic materials.
• Applications include fiber optics, concrete, and electronic chips.

Analytical Chemistry

• Studies the chemical composition of a material or sample through different laboratory methods.

Engineering Chemistry

• This is a branch of engineering that develops industrial processes for the transformation of matter and designs new materials.
• The processes require sophisticated physical and chemical transformations of matter.

Biochemistry

• Examines substances present in living organisms such as plants, animals, microorganisms, or humans.

Physical Chemistry

• It studies matter and its transformations applying physical concepts like movement, time, energy, and forces.

Astrochemistry

• Studies the composition of material elements found in the universe
• Examples include stars, planets, or comets.

Pharmaceutical Chemistry

• Studies molecules for the development of medications.
• The goal is to combat or alleviate diseases.

Electrochemistry

• It analyzes the relationship between chemical reactions and electricity.

Environmental Chemistry

• Studies chemical processes in the environment (soil, water, atmosphere) and the impact of human activities.

The Periodic Table

• Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer reached similar conclusions independently on how elements should be grouped.

Effective Nuclear Charge

• In a polyelectronic atom, electrons are attracted to the nucleus and repelled by other electrons.
• The nuclear charge an electron experiences depends on both factors.
• The effective nuclear charge, Zeff, is found as Zeff = Z - S where Z is the atomic number and S is a screening constant, generally close to the number of inner electrons.

Ionization Energy

• Metals tend to form cations.
• Non-metals tend to form anions.
• The first ionization energy is the energy required to remove the first electron.
• The second ionization energy is the energy required to remove the second electron.
• Cations are smaller than the atoms from which they originate.
• The outermost electron is removed, reducing repulsion between electrons.

Electron Affinity

• Electron affinity is the change in energy when an electron is added to a gaseous atom.

States of Matter

• Gas: Adopts the volume and shape of its container, compressible, flows easily, diffuses rapidly.
• Liquid: Adopts the shape of the part of the container it occupies, incompressible, flows easily, diffuses slowly.
• Solid: Maintains its own shape and volume, incompressible, does not flow, diffuses extremely slowly.

Hydrogen bonding

• Observe high critical temperatures and pressures. This is due to the intensity of the Van der Waals forces between water molecules.

Crystalline Solids

• Types of crystalline solids include primitive cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic.
• In crystalline solids, atoms or molecules are arranged in a regular, repeating pattern

Types of solids

• Molecular solids: held together by intermolecular forces, have low melting points
• Covalent network solids: held together by covalent bonds, have high melting points and are very hard
• Ionic solids: held together by ionic bonds, have high melting points and are brittle
• Metallic solids: have a sea of electrons, have high melting points and are ductile and malleable

Properties of gases

• Expand to fill their container
• Highly compressible
• Extremely low density

Pressure

• Pressure is the amount of force applied to an area.
• Atmospheric pressure is the weight of air per unit area.
• Commonly used units of pressure are Pascals, Bars and atm

Manometer

• A manometer is a measuring instrument used to measure pressure.

Ideal gas laws

• Boyle’s Law: V ∝ 1/ P (at constant n, T)
• Charles’s Law: V ∝ T (at constant n, P)
• Avogadro’s Law: V ∝ n (at constant P, T)

Ideal Gas Law

• PV = nRT describes the relationship between pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles in a single system.

Deviation from Ideal Gas Law

• The real-world behavior of gases conforms to the ideal gas equation at relatively high temperatures and low pressures.
• The Van der Waals equation is a modified form of the ideal gas law that accounts for the non-ideal behavior of real gases.

Graham's Law of Effusion

• The kinetic energy of two different gases are equal under the same conditions
• The rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass.