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Questions and Answers
What happened to average middle-class income between 1865 and 1890?
What happened to average middle-class income between 1865 and 1890?
- Dropped
- Unchanged
- Remained the same
- Rose (correct)
By 1900, fully 36 percent of urban families owned their _____.
By 1900, fully 36 percent of urban families owned their _____.
homes
What type of stores began to appear in the central business districts in the 1870s?
What type of stores began to appear in the central business districts in the 1870s?
department stores
What new freedoms did women gain in the late 19th century?
What new freedoms did women gain in the late 19th century?
What did the depression of 1893 stimulate many women to investigate?
What did the depression of 1893 stimulate many women to investigate?
Teaching was a high-paying and demanding field that grew as urban schools expanded.
Teaching was a high-paying and demanding field that grew as urban schools expanded.
What provided new forms of employment in office work, nursing, and department stores?
What provided new forms of employment in office work, nursing, and department stores?
Which act contributed to the rise of land-grant state universities?
Which act contributed to the rise of land-grant state universities?
What did the social ethic of the age stress?
What did the social ethic of the age stress?
Child labor was not commonly linked to a father's income.
Child labor was not commonly linked to a father's income.
Accident rates in the United States far exceeded those of ____'s industrial nations.
Accident rates in the United States far exceeded those of ____'s industrial nations.
What was a common working condition for most industrial workers?
What was a common working condition for most industrial workers?
What demographic did most of the new immigrants from southern and central Europe lack?
What demographic did most of the new immigrants from southern and central Europe lack?
The ethnic diversity of the industrial workforce helps explain its occupational patterns, as occupation was related to ___ background and ___.
The ethnic diversity of the industrial workforce helps explain its occupational patterns, as occupation was related to ___ background and ___.
What were domestic service jobs generally seen as?
What were domestic service jobs generally seen as?
By 1900, what percentage of American women were in the workforce?
By 1900, what percentage of American women were in the workforce?
Unemployment insurance existed in the late 19th century.
Unemployment insurance existed in the late 19th century.
Many married women contributed to family income by taking in _____.
Many married women contributed to family income by taking in _____.
Nor could domestics count on much ____ from their employers.
Nor could domestics count on much ____ from their employers.
The fact that many women took domestic work despite the job's _____ speaks clearly of their ____ opportunities.
The fact that many women took domestic work despite the job's _____ speaks clearly of their ____ opportunities.
The dismal situation facing working women drove some, such as Rose Haggerty, into ____. Prostitution appears to have ____ in the late nineteenth century.
The dismal situation facing working women drove some, such as Rose Haggerty, into ____. Prostitution appears to have ____ in the late nineteenth century.
Probably most single women accepted the ___ jobs open to them. They tolerated ___ and ___ wages because their families depended on their contributions.
Probably most single women accepted the ___ jobs open to them. They tolerated ___ and ___ wages because their families depended on their contributions.
What did women often do when they married?
What did women often do when they married?
Like colonial families, late-nineteenth-century working-class _____ operated as cooperative economic units.
Like colonial families, late-nineteenth-century working-class _____ operated as cooperative economic units.
The unpaid domestic ___ of working-class wives was critical to family survival.
The unpaid domestic ___ of working-class wives was critical to family survival.
Women bore the burden of ___ care and the ___ chores.
Women bore the burden of ___ care and the ___ chores.
Because working-class families could not afford - conveniences, housework was time-consuming and arduous.
Because working-class families could not afford - conveniences, housework was time-consuming and arduous.
What responsibilities did married women have regarding family resources?
What responsibilities did married women have regarding family resources?
Domestic economies were ___ to survival.
Domestic economies were ___ to survival.
Women also supplemented family income by taking in work. Jewish and Italian women frequently did ___ work and ____ at home.
Women also supplemented family income by taking in work. Jewish and Italian women frequently did ___ work and ____ at home.
In the ____ and the ____, between 10 and 40 percent of all working-class families kept ____.
In the ____ and the ____, between 10 and 40 percent of all working-class families kept ____.
Black women's working lives reflected the obstacles African Americans faced in late-nineteenth-century cities. African American women worked outside the home before and after ____. In southern cities in 1880, about three-quarters of single black women and / of married black women worked outside the home.
Black women's working lives reflected the obstacles African Americans faced in late-nineteenth-century cities. African American women worked outside the home before and after ____. In southern cities in 1880, about three-quarters of single black women and / of married black women worked outside the home.
Because ____ employers would not hire African American women, most of them had to work as ____ or laundresses.
Because ____ employers would not hire African American women, most of them had to work as ____ or laundresses.
The high percentage of married black women in the labor force reflected the ____ wages their husbands earned.
The high percentage of married black women in the labor force reflected the ____ wages their husbands earned.
What was learned during slavery regarding children and their mothers?
What was learned during slavery regarding children and their mothers?
Class ____ characterized late-nineteenth-century industrial life.
Class ____ characterized late-nineteenth-century industrial life.
Although workers welcomed the progress that factories made possible, many rejected their employers' values, which emphasized ____ gain at the expense of ____ good.
Although workers welcomed the progress that factories made possible, many rejected their employers' values, which emphasized ____ gain at the expense of ____ good.
While owners reaped most of the ____, workers were turning into wage ____. Fashioning their arguments from their republican legacy, workers claimed that the degradation of the country's citizen laborers threatened to undermine the republic itself.
While owners reaped most of the ____, workers were turning into wage ____. Fashioning their arguments from their republican legacy, workers claimed that the degradation of the country's citizen laborers threatened to undermine the republic itself.
Workers sought to control the ___ of production.
Workers sought to control the ___ of production.
Too many goods meant an inhuman ___ of work and might result in ___ production, massive ____, and a ____ in the prices paid for piecework.
Too many goods meant an inhuman ___ of work and might result in ___ production, massive ____, and a ____ in the prices paid for piecework.
What might experienced workers tell new workers?
What might experienced workers tell new workers?
In attempting to protect themselves, workers devised ways of ____ employer attempts to speed up the production process.
In attempting to protect themselves, workers devised ways of ____ employer attempts to speed up the production process.
Denouncing fellow workers who ____ to honor production codes, they ostracized and even injured them.
Denouncing fellow workers who ____ to honor production codes, they ostracized and even injured them.
_____ism, ____ness at work, and general inefficiency were other widespread worker practices that contained elements of ___.
_____ism, ____ness at work, and general inefficiency were other widespread worker practices that contained elements of ___.
What did frustrated employers attempt to do regarding absent and uncooperative workers?
What did frustrated employers attempt to do regarding absent and uncooperative workers?
Most employers responded by penalizing workers who left without giving sufficient notice; it [did/______] work.
Most employers responded by penalizing workers who left without giving sufficient notice; it [did/______] work.
Turnover in the industrial workforce could be high over a period of ten years.
Turnover in the industrial workforce could be high over a period of ten years.
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Study Notes
Economic and Social Changes in Late 19th Century America
- Industrialization led to significant economic and social polarization among different social classes.
- Between 1865 and 1890, average middle-class incomes rose, with 36% of urban families owning homes by 1900.
- Industrial expansion increased living standards, allowing the purchase of various consumer goods.
Middle-Class Women's Lives
- More leisure time emerged, and consumer goods became more accessible, altering middle-class women's daily lives.
- Servant labor relieved urban middle-class wives of household responsibilities.
- The emergence of department stores in the 1870s changed retailing and fueled material desire and shopping became central to middle-class women's lives.
Women's Independence and Rights
- Women gained new freedoms, including improved property rights in marriage, enhancing their independence.
- Women adopted more comfortable clothing suitable for work, school, and sports.
Women's Organizations and Employment
- Women joined various organizations which provided experience and awareness outside traditional roles.
- The depression of 1893 prompted women to investigate working conditions in slums and factories.
- Educated middle-class women primarily found employment in social services and teaching.
Education and Professional Opportunities
- Educational opportunities expanded for women, with new women's colleges emerging.
- By the early 20th century, the number of women professionals, including teachers, increased significantly.
- Higher education prepared women for conventional roles and emerging professions.
Family and Child Labor Dynamics
- The number of children born to educated women decreased, aided by advances in birth control.
- Child labor became a survival strategy, with 1 in 5 children aged 10-14 working in 1880.
Working-Class Struggles
- Working-class Americans faced long hours in dangerous jobs for meager wages, leading to limited mobility and security.
- Immigrants constituted a sizable portion of the urban workforce, often serving in unskilled labor positions.
Employment Demographics and Ethnic Diversity
- Ethnic diversity shaped occupational patterns, with native-born whites typically holding the most skilled positions.
- Most Southern and Central European immigrants lacked industrial experience and worked in unskilled jobs.
Industrial Working Conditions
- The rise of big business and mechanization transformed the workforce, doubling manufacturing workers from 1880 to 1900.
- Workers endured unhealthy and dangerous working conditions with limited regulations protecting their rights.
Income Disparities and Class Wealth
- By 1890, the wealth concentration favored the top 1% of families, illustrating severe economic inequality.
- The working class, while the largest labor force segment, experienced significant wage discrepancies based on skill and occupation.
Women's Role in the Workforce
- By 1900, 20% of American women participated in the labor force, earning significantly less than men, with some factory roles being among the few available.
- Domestic service was a predominant work class for women, highlighting their limited economic opportunities.
Family Economics and Domestic Labor
- Working-class families operated as cooperative economic units, with women contributing significantly through unpaid domestic labor.
- Women supplemented family income by taking in work or boarders, navigating through various challenges alongside family responsibilities.### Working Class Families
- Extra income significantly benefited many working-class families despite some disadvantages.
Black Women's Employment
- In the late 19th century, African American women faced substantial obstacles in urban job markets.
- A large percentage of single black women (about three-quarters) and one-third of married black women worked outside the home in southern cities by 1880.
- Due to discrimination, many black women found employment as domestics or laundresses.
- The labor force participation of married black women often stemmed from their husbands’ low wages, necessitating additional income.
- Changing perceptions regarding child-rearing allowed more women to enter the workforce.
Class Conflict in Industry
- Late 19th-century industrial life was marked by class conflict, as workers struggled with their employers' values prioritizing individual profit over collective good.
- Workers felt their rights as citizen laborers were threatened by the growing disparity between owner profits and worker treatment.
Workplace Control Struggles
- Workers resisted poor working conditions and the dehumanizing treatment by employers, seeking to control the workplace more effectively.
- Skilled workers held vital knowledge about production processes and often fought to maintain autonomy over their work.
- Efforts were made by some workers to humanize the workplace environment.
Control of Production Rate
- Workers aimed to regulate the pace of production to avoid overwork and detrimental economic consequences such as layoffs and price drops for piecework.
- Experienced workers often advised newcomers to work at a slower pace to maintain quality and job security.
Combating Production Speeding
- Workers developed strategies to resist employer pressure for increased production speed, often ostracizing peers who did not comply with established codes of conduct.
Absenteeism and Worker Protest
- Absenteeism, workplace inefficiency, and drunkenness were common practices among workers, reflecting broader sentiments of protest.
- While some absences resulted from legitimate layoffs, many were also expressions of frustration.
- Employers frequently attempted to penalize workers for unapproved absences, yet this approach rarely succeeded in reducing turnover rates within the workforce after a decade.
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