History and Key Figures in Forensics

Forensics: History and Justice

• Forensics involves applying science to the justice system.
• It includes examining and interpreting civil and criminal evidence.
• Death investigation significantly contributed to forensics development.
• European scientists made forensics a respectable discipline in the 19th century.
• Generalists have broad knowledge, while specialists have in-depth knowledge in a specific area.

Important Figures of Forensics

• Victor Balthazard (1852-1950): Published first book on hair analysis and developed a system for distinguishing bullet and firearm markings.
• Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914): Developed Bertillonage (Anthropometry), a system for tracking criminals using 11 body measurements, later replaced by fingerprinting.
• Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911): Developed the first fingerprint classification system using arches, whorls, and loops and published the book "FingerPrints".
• Calvin Goddard (1891-1955): Developed tools for identifying and classifying firearms, joining the Bureau of Forensic Ballistics in 1925.
• Hans Gross (1847-1915): Wrote the first forensics textbook, coined the term criminalistics, and advocated for a holistic approach using experts from various fields.
• Edmond Locard (1877-1966): Criminologist interested in microscopic trace evidence; formulated Locard's Exchange Principle: every contact results in a transfer of materials.
• Mathieu Orfila (1787-1853): Founding father of forensic toxicology, focusing on arsenic and other poisons.
• Sherlock Holmes and Arthur Doyle: Shaped public views and pioneered forensic science, influencing areas like trace evidence, questioned documents, and forensic biology.

Justice and Science

• The Daubert Standard gives trial judges the responsibility to determine if evidence is useful, relevant, and scientifically valid, which results in Daubert Hearings.
• The scientific method uses data and empirical evidence through hypothesis formulation, testing, revision, and repetition until results align with the hypothesis.
• The adversarial system involves lawyers arguing for rival positions, which is incongruent with the scientific method.

Modern Practice of Forensics

• Public forensic labs are government-funded, while private labs aim to make profits.
• Full-service laboratories cover many disciplines.
• Forensic scientists can work as police officers, engineers, or anthropologists in crime scene squads.
• Accreditation & Certification are important in modern practice of forensics

Legal Proceedings

• Forensic scientists can testify in civil and criminal cases for either party.
• Jurisdiction is the region where law enforcement or legal entities can exercise authority.
• The trier of fact (jury or judge) makes decisions based on evidence.
• A subpoena details the trial, and voir dire is a statement explaining an expert's qualifications.

Evidence: Types and Admissibility

• Evidence is material/information acquired through scientific methods to help reconstruct a crime; can be inculpatory or exculpatory, direct or circumstantial.

Inculpatory vs. Exculpatory

• Inculpatory evidence shows a person's involvement or establishes guilt.
• Exculpatory evidence proves a defendant's innocence.

Circumstantial vs. Direct

• Circumstantial evidence implies a fact but doesn't prove it directly, linking crime and suspect.
• Direct evidence involves first-hand observations, like eyewitness accounts or camera footage; confessions can be direct evidence.

More Types of Evidence

• Trace evidence is a type of circumstantial evidence.
• Class evidence narrows an identity to a group (e.g., ABO blood type).
• Individual evidence narrows an identity to a single source (e.g., fingerprint).
• Lie Detector Tests are inadmissible in most courts but statements made during the test can be admissible.

Federal Rules of Evidence. 1969

• The Federal Rules of Evidence set guidelines for expert witness testimony but didn't define "expert."

Daubert Decision, 1993

• The Daubert Decision from 1993 established judges as gatekeepers for admissible scientific evidence.

Securing and Collecting Evidence

• All evidence needs proper packaging, sealing, and labeling.
• Liquids and arson remains are stored in airtight, unbreakable containers.
• Moist evidence is stored in breathable containers to dry out, then packaged in a paper bindle.

Packaging Evidence Steps

• Crease paper, place evidence in the center, fold sides, fold top and bottom, insert top flap into bottom, tape closed, and place in a plastic or paper evidence log.
• Fold the bag closed, seal the folded edge, and have the collector sign over the folded edge.
• Use an evidence log including all key information

Chain of Custody

• The Chain of Custody tracks evidence movement through collection, safeguarding, and analysis, documenting each person who handled it, dates/times, and purpose of transfer.

Types and Uses of Evidence

• Reconstructive evidence helps figure out events before, during, and after a crime.
• Associative evidence is important when compared, and includes hairs, fibers, blood, paint, glass, firearms, bullets, fingerprints, and other imprint evidence.

Class characteristic

• Class characteristics narrow evidence down into general categories.

Individual characteristic & identification

• Individual characteristics Connects class evidence to a suspect.
• Allows for identification of a person at the scene.

Examples

• Chemical (e.g., explosives).
• Impression (e.g., footprint).
• Fingerprint.
• Firearm/toolmark.
• Questioned Documents.