Hinduism: Historical Foundations

Hinduism: Historical Foundations

• The Pre-Vedic Period (~2500 BCE – 1500 BCE) centered on the Indus Valley Civilisation which included early symbols like proto-Shiva worship and Shiva Linga. Nature worship and potential Dravidian influence on later Hindu practices were present. The civilization's decline is attributed to environmental changes, deforestation, seismic activity, trade disruptions, and gradual migration
• The Vedic Period (~1500 BCE – 600 BCE) saw the arrival of the Aryans and the introduction of the Vedas, with the Rigveda being the oldest. These texts, written in Sanskrit, contained hymns and rituals dedicated to deities such as Agni and Indra. This period also marked the development of fire rituals and the early stages of the caste system (varna)
• The Upanishadic Period (~600 BCE – 200 BCE) involved a shift towards philosophical and introspective traditions with emphasis on self-reflection, meditation, and understanding the nature of existence. The Upanishads, as interpretations of the Vedas, were added at the end. The synthesis of Dravidian and Aryan practices and the integration of deities and myths, like Rudra and Shiva, influenced the emergence of Hinduism. There was also the development of Brahmanism emphasizing rituals performed by the Brahmin priestly class and the increasing rigidity of the varna system and the linguistic influence of Sanskrit as a liturgical and scholarly language

Hinduism: Core Beliefs

• AUM (OM) is the universal sound representing the absolute and the source of all existence and is significant in prayers, meditation, and scriptures
• Brahman is the ultimate reality and cosmic power that is impersonal, all-encompassing, and the essence of the universe manifesting as various deities
• Atman is the individual soul, a fragment or reflection of Brahman within each living being and is eternal as part of Brahman. The goal of life is to realise Atman = Brahman
• Samsara: The endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth influenced by Karma
• Karma is the law of cause and effect where actions have consequences in the current or future lives, introducing a moral dimension to the universe
• Moksha is liberation from Samsara and union with Brahman and the ultimate goal achieved through good Karma, fulfilling Dharma, detachment, self-realisation, and following one or more of the four yogas
• The Four Yogas include:
  • Bhakti Yoga: Loving devotion to a deity
  • Jnana Yoga: Deep study, meditation, and reflection
  • Karma Yoga: Selfless service and ethical actions
  • Raja Yoga: Deep meditation, breath control, and physical postures
• Dharma is the duty, righteousness, and the moral code applicable to an individual based on their age, caste, gender, and occupation and also refers to the universal order
• Tat Tvam Asi: "Thou art that," signifies the oneness of the individual soul (Atman) with the ultimate reality (Brahman)
• Ahimsa: Non-violence in thoughts, words, and deeds, stems from the recognition of the divine (Atman) in all beings

Hinduism: The Hindu Pantheon

• Multiplicity and Unity: refers to numerous gods and goddesses seen as manifestations of the same divine reality (Brahman) and personal and local deities alongside universal ones
• Trimurti: The trinity of Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver), and Shiva (destroyer/transformer)
• Tridevi: The goddess trio of Saraswati (knowledge, arts, Brahma's consort), Lakshmi (wealth, Vishnu's consort), and Parvati/Durga/Kali (feminine divine energy/Shakti, Shiva's consort in various forms)
• Other Popular Deities: Ganesha (remover of obstacles), Hanuman (devotion, strength), Krishna (avatar of Vishnu), Rama (avatar of Vishnu, righteousness)

Hinduism: Yoga and Meditation

• Yoga from Sanskrit 'yuj' meaning to unite interpreted as the union of body, mind, and spirit with roots in Vedas, Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gita
• Meditation (Dhyana) - Training attention and awareness for mental clarity and emotional calm. It is central to self-realisation and understanding the relationship with Brahman using techniques include mantra and transcendental meditation
• Holistic Benefits of Yoga meditation are physical (improved fitness), mental (reduced stress, enhanced focus), and spiritual (deepened self-awareness, connection to the universe)

Hinduism: Ashramas and Sadhus

• Ashramas are four stages of life guiding spiritual and societal duties
  • Brahmacharya (Student): Learning, character development, celibacy (birth - ~25)
  • Grihastha (Householder): Family, societal contribution (~25 - ~50)
  • Vanaprastha (Retired/Hermit): Detachment, spiritual growth (~50 - ~75) Sannyasa (Renunciation/Ascetic): Complete focus on spiritual realisation and Moksha (~75+)
• Sadhus: Renunciates live apart from society to focus on spiritual practices who number in the millions in India and are respected for their dedication
• Lifestyle of Sadhus: Includes ascetic practices (celibacy, minimal possessions, physical rituals), nomadic or settled in ashrams/hermitages, dependence on alms, and providing spiritual teachings
• Spiritual Significance of Sadhus: Seeking self-realisation (Atman = Brahman) as role models for spiritual goals, believed to uphold Dharma

Hinduism: Symbolism and Social Structures

• Key Symbols:

  • Namaste: The meaning is "I bow to the divine in you," showing respect and recognition of the sacred
  • Lotus: Symbolises purity, spiritual awakening, and growth
  • Swastika: Symbolises auspiciousness and good fortune, unrelated to Western misappropriation

• The Ganges: A sacred river revered as a goddess associated with purification and spiritual rebirth (Moksha) central to rituals and festivals stemming from mythological roots in King Bhagiratha and Shiva's intervention

• Reverence for the Cow: Symbol of life and nature (not worshipped as a god) that is of practical importance (milk, dung), embodies Ahimsa, and has contemporary relevance in social and political debates

• The Caste System:Ancient Beginnings (Vedic Period) that includes four varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras) originating from the cosmic being Purusha based initially on occupation/merit

• Dalits (Scheduled Castes): Exist outside the varna system

• Jatis: Birth-determined subgroups within varnas that dictate social interactions (marriage, community, and occupation) with dynamic and regional variations

• Colonialism's Impact: British census practices rigidified caste boundaries and reinforced hierarchy

• Modern Transformations: Comprises legal reforms against discrimination, urbanisation and education impacting traditional structures, ongoing social and political relevance with regional variations in inter-caste marriage acceptance

• Gandhi: Early Life & Influence Born: 1869, studied law, experiences with racial discrimination in South Africa and influenced by Hindu teachings, Jain principles, and Western civil rights concepts

• Philosophy of Non-violent Resistance (Satyagraha): Rooted in Ahimsa and truth, applied to social and political reform

• Reinterpretation of Hindu Values: Emphasis on social justice, equality, and inclusivity which challenges aspects of the caste system

• The Influence on Modern Social Reform: Inspired movements for civil rights and social justice globally

Hinduism: Major Festivals and Life-Cycle Rituals

• Major Festivals:
  • Diwali (Festival of Lights): Celebrated in Autumn celebrating the victory of good over evil with Lakshmi worship, lights, fireworks, sweets, home cleaning, and decoration
  • Holi (Festival of Colours): Celebrated in Spring celebrating the victory of good over evil (Prahlad and Holika) with divine love of Krishna and Radha involving throwing colours, water play, singing, dancing, and sweets
  • Navaratri (Nine Nights of Devotion): Celebrated in Autumn with Goddess Durga worship in nine forms and feminine power and Durga's victory over Mahishasura. Includes fasting, prayer, Garba/Dandiya dances, and Golu displays
• Life-Cycle Rituals (Samskaras): Rites of passage marking life stages designed with spiritual structure for community belonging that traditionally include 16 rites
  • Naming Ceremony (Namakarana): Occurs within weeks/months of birth with formal naming and blessings
  • Sacred Thread Ceremony (Upanayana): Occurs at ages 8-16 (males) and is an initiation into spiritual learning with a sacred thread worn
  • Marriage (Vivaha Samskara): Considered a sacred duty uniting families that includes Kanyadaan (father gives daughter), Saptapadi (seven vows), Mangalsutra (sacred necklace), with arranged marriages a traditional practice

Hinduism: Sacred Texts and Epics

• Funeral Rites (Antyesti): Last rites where cremation is common and rituals for the soul's journey are performed
• Pilgrimage (Tirtha Yatra) is an important act of devotion providing spiritual merit and purification with communal bonding. Popular sites include Varanasi (Ganges, Moksha), Tirupati (Lord Venkateshwara, prosperity), and Vaishno Devi (Goddess, perseverance)
• The Vedas: The oldest and most authoritative scriptures that are Apaurusheya (divinely revealed) and of cultural importance (history, culture, music, and science)
• Major Epics and Texts- Mahabharata:The world's longest epic that covers dharma, war, family, and philosophy with key characters including Pandavas, Kauravas, Krishna, and Draupadi. The lesson is that life is complex and encompasses moral ambiguities
• Bhagavad Gita: Part of Mahabharata with Krishna's counsel to Arjuna that covers duty, righteousness, the nature of life/death, and paths to realisation. The lesson is that detachment and righteous action with devotion are key
• Ramayana: Covers life of Prince Rama, Sita, Hanuman, dharma, loyalty, love, and good vs. evil with characters Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Hanuman, and Ravana. The lesson is that honour, righteousness, and upholding principles is necessary

Buddhism: Historical Context and the Buddha

• Origins: Originated in Northeast India, around the fifth century BCE, during a time of social and religious transformation when Hinduism was dominant

• Challenges to Orthodox Hinduism: Comprised of Sanskrit exclusivity, Brahmin interpretation maintaining status quo, and discontent with the cycle of rebirth

• Siddhartha Gautama, The Buddha: was born in Lumbini, Nepal, in 563 BCE with prophecy stating he would become a king or spiritual leader

• Sheltered Life: Gautama's father attempted to prevent Gautama's spiritual path

• The Four Sights (age 29): Old man, sick person, corpse, ascetic – realisation of suffering

• The Great Renunciation- includes leaving wife, son, and possessions to seek liberation

• Search for Enlightenment: six years of asceticism resulting in "The Middle Way" between indulgence and self-denial

• Enlightenment Under the Bodhi Tree: Understanding the cause and end of suffering and becoming the Buddha ("Awakened One")

• Spreading the Dharma: Buddha spends 45 years teaching and gaining followers and establishing a monastic order (Sangha) open to all castes

• Final Days (Parinirvana): Buddha dies at age 80 after falling ill and his last words were "All compound things are perishable. Strive with diligence."

• The Spread of Buddhism occurred through Trade Routes (The Silk Road, maritime networks), Missionary Efforts, and Cultural Adaptation to blending with local beliefs

• Emperor Asoka promoted Buddhism through conversion, promotion of Buddhist values, infrastructure (stupas, monasteries), and missionary work

• Buddhism's Legacy: Today, Buddhism is a global religion with various schools emphasizing personal spiritual development and influencing Western culture (mindfulness) and has an estimated 535 million followers worldwide

Buddhism: Central Beliefs

• The Three Jewels:
  • The Buddha: The enlightened teacher
  • The Dharma: The teachings of the Buddha
  • The Sangha: The community of practitioners
• Three Marks of Existence (Three Universal Truths):
  • Dukkha (Suffering): Life involves suffering, dissatisfaction, and unease
  • Anicca (Impermanence): All phenomena are subject to change, decay, and death where clinging to transient things leads to suffering
  • Anatta (No Self): Denial of a permanent unchanging essence within individuals made up of the Five Aggregates which leads to reducing attachment and ego through understanding

Buddhism: The Four Noble Truths

• The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha): Life inherently involves suffering
• The Truth of the Origin of Suffering (Samudaya): Suffering arises from attachment and craving (Tanha)
• The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering (Nirodha): Suffering can cease by eliminating attachment
• The Truth of the Path to the Cessation of Suffering (Magga): The way to end suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path

Buddhism: The Noble Eightfold Path

• Right Understanding (Wisdom): Comprehending the Four Noble Truths
• Right Thought (Wisdom): Cultivating wholesome intentions (renunciation, non-ill will, non-harming)
• Right Speech (Ethical Conduct): Avoiding harmful speech and promoting truth and harmony
• Right Action (Ethical Conduct): Refraining from harmful actions
• Right Livelihood (Ethical Conduct): Choosing a way of living that does not harm others
• Right Effort (Mental Discipline): Cultivating wholesome qualities and eliminating unwholesome ones
• Right Mindfulness (Mental Discipline): Being fully aware and present in the moment
• Right Concentration (Mental Discipline): Developing focus and mental clarity through meditation

Buddhism: The Five Precepts

• Not Killing
• Not Stealing
• Not Misusing Sex
• Not Engaging in False Speech
• Not Indulging in Intoxicants
• Buddhist Values: Self-determination, mindfulness, compassion, loving-kindness, and detachment

Buddhism: The Branches of Buddhism

• Monastic Precepts: Strict rules for monks and nuns (e.g., meal times, avoiding entertainment, simple living) to focus on spiritual practice
• Theravada Buddhism ("The Teaching of the Elders") originated in Northern India, 6th century BCE. focuses on the original Buddha's teachings (Dhamma) highlighting the Sangha (monk community) striving for individual enlightenment (Arhat) and daily living in Monasticism with simple lives, morning eating, receiving food from laypeople, meditation, and teaching. Its adherents believe that Lay People's Role is Meditation, Eightfold Path, and Earning good Karma and practice adherence to the Pali Cannon (Tipitaka - "Three Baskets")
• Mahayana Buddhism ("The Great Vehicle"):Originated in Northwestern India, 3rd–2nd century BCE. It focuses on belief in Buddha's presence continues with Buddha being able to enlighten many (not just monks) with the Bodhisattva ideal
• Vajrayana Buddhism ("The Esoteric Path"): Originated in India and flourished in Tibet with a focus on esoteric tantric practices for rapid realisation of inner Buddha-nature leading all emotions/experiences to become part of the path using symbols (mandalas) for meditation.

Buddhism: General traits of different schools

• The Tantras: Unique texts offering a faster spiritual path through rituals and symbols
• Comparative Summary: Theravada (classic, monastic focus, Pali Canon), Mahayana (inclusive, Bodhisattva ideal, expanded scriptures), Vajrayana (mystical, tantric practices, quicker path). Core: Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Goal of Nirvana/escape from Samsara.