Hindi Literature: Adikāl and Bhaktikāl

• Hindi literature includes diverse works in the Hindi language, mainly in Devanagari script.
• It has evolved through socio-cultural, religious, and political movements.
• The history of Hindi literature has four periods.

आदिकाल (Ādikāl) or वीरगाथा काल (Vīrgāthā Kāl) (c. 1050-1375)

• The earliest period of Hindi literature.
• Heroic poetry and ballads characterize this time.
• Wars, love, and glorification of kings and warriors are dominant themes.
• Charans (bards) sang praises of royal patrons as the main literary form.
• "Prithviraj Raso" by Chand Bardai narrates the life of Rajput king Prithviraj Chauhan.
• "Bisaldev Raso" by Narpat Nalh and "Parmal Raso" by Jagnik are other notable works.
• The language used was a mix of Apabhramsa and early Hindi dialects.

भक्तिकाल (Bhaktikāl) (c. 1375-1700)

• Known as the Golden Age of Hindi literature.
• The Bhakti movement, which emphasized devotion and love for God, rose during this time.
• Two main schools of Bhakti poetry existed: Nirguna (attributeless God) and Saguna (God with attributes).

निर्गुण भक्ति (Nirguna Bhakti)

• The formless, attributeless nature of God was emphasized.
• Kabir, Raidas, and Guru Nanak are prominent poets.
• Kabir's dohas (couplets) are popular for their social and religious criticism.
• Key concepts include rejecting idol worship and emphasizing inner realization.

सगुण भक्ति (Saguna Bhakti)

• Devotion was focused to God with specific forms and attributes, especially Rama and Krishna.
• Ram Bhakti and Krishna Bhakti are two main branches.

राम भक्ति (Ram Bhakti)

• Tulsidas was the most important poet.
• His "Ramcharitmanas" is an epic retelling of the Ramayana.
• Emphasizes devotion, duty, and ideal human relationships.

कृष्ण भक्ति (Krishna Bhakti)

• Surdas, Meera Bai, and Raskhan were prominent poets.
• Surdas's "Sur Sagar" is a collection of poems dedicated to Lord Krishna.
• Meera Bai's bhajans express her intense love for Krishna.
• Key themes include love, devotion, and the divine play (Leela) of Krishna.

रीतिकाल (Rītikāl) (c. 1700-1900)

• Poetry focused on aesthetics, rhetoric, and courtly love.
• Kings and nobles often patronized poets.
• Beauty, ornamentation, and the art of poetry were dominant themes.
• Rītibaddh, Rītisiddh, and Rītimukt are main categories of poets.
• Keshavdas, Bihari, and Bhushan were important poets.
• Keshavdas's "Rasikpriya" and "Kavipriya" are treatises on poetics/aesthetics.
• Bihari's "Bihari Satsai" exemplifies the Riti style in its dohas.

आधुनिक काल (Ādhunik Kāl) (c. 1900-present)

• The modern period, influenced by Western literature, social reform, and nationalism.
• It shifted from traditional themes to social justice, individual identity, and political awareness.
• Several literary movements emerged.

भारतेन्दु युग (Bhāratendu Yug) (c. 1850-1900)

• Named after Bharatendu Harishchandra, a pioneer of modern Hindi literature.
• Focus on social reform, patriotism, and modern Hindi prose.
• Bharatendu Harishchandra wrote plays, poems, and essays on contemporary issues.

द्विवेदी युग (Dvivedī Yug) (c. 1900-1920)

• Named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who standardized the Hindi language.
• Emphasis was placed on linguistic purity, moral values, and nationalistic themes.
• Maithili Sharan Gupt and Ayodhya Singh Upadhyay 'Hariaudh' join Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi as important writers.
• Maithili Sharan Gupt's "Bharat Bharati" is a patriotic poem that inspired nationalism.

छायावाद (Chāyāvād) (c. 1920-1936)

• A romantic movement characterized by subjective expression, emotional intensity, symbolism and imagery.
• Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Sumitranandan Pant and Mahadevi Verma are the four pillars of Chhayavad
• Jaishankar Prasad's "Kamayani" explores creation, human consciousness, and the search for meaning.
• Mahadevi Verma's poetry expresses pain, longing, and spiritual quest.

प्रगतिवाद (Pragativād) (c. 1936-1947)

• A progressive movement influenced by Marxism and socialism.
• Focus on social realism, class struggle, and the working class.
• Nagarjun, Kedarnath Aggarwal, and Shivmangal Singh 'Suman' are important writers.

प्रयोगवाद (Prayogvād) (c. 1943-1950s)

• An experimentalist movement that rejected conventions of earlier poetry.
• Emphasis on individual experience, form/language experimentation, and subconscious exploration.
• Agyeya (Sachchidananda Hiranand Vatsyayan 'Agyeya') is an important writer.

नई कविता (Nai Kavitā) (c. 1950s-present)

• The New Poetry movement emerged after Prayogvad.
• It focuses on contemporary life, individual freedom, and everyday language.
• Agyeya, Muktibodh, and Dhoomil are important poets.

आधुनिक हिंदी गद्य (Ādhunik Hindī Gadya)

• Modern Hindi prose developed alongside poetry, in novels, short stories, essays, and plays.
• Premchand is considered one of the greatest Hindi novelists, known for his realistic depictions of rural life and social issues, writing "Godan," "Gaban," and "Nirmala."
• Yashpal, Jainendra Kumar and Phanishwarnath Renu also rank as important novelists.
• Mohan Rakesh and Vijay Tendulkar count as important playwrights, and Girish Karnad wrote in Kannada, but his plays translated into Hindi had a major impact.
• Jaishankar Prasad, Agyeya, and Nirmal Verma are important short story writers.