SAQ in MC form for FOPAC Exam

Questions and Answers

According to the heuristics and biases model, what is the tendency of people when testing hypotheses?

Asking questions that have a neutral answer

Avoiding asking questions altogether

Seeking evidence that disconfirms their hypotheses

Seeking evidence that confirms their hypotheses (correct)

What is the name of the task used to test the confirmation bias?

Hendrickson Task

Perfors Task

Navarro Task

Wason Task (correct)

In the Wason Task, what cards do people tend to select to test the rule?

The \'A\' and \'7\' cards

The \'A\' and \'26\' cards (correct)

The \'A\' card only

The \'S\' and \'7\' cards

When are people more likely to seek disconfirming evidence?

When the entities referred to in the hypothesis are frequent Signup and view all the answers

What is the optimal approach to hypothesis testing in terms of information gained with each query?

Seeking evidence that confirms the hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the model that describes the tendency for people to seek confirming evidence?

Heuristics and biases model Signup and view all the answers

What is the research focus of the heuristics and biases model?

Environments in which biases are adaptive Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between confidence and accuracy in decision-making?

There is no correlation between confidence and accuracy Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of binocular cues in the visual system?

To provide a cue to depth Signup and view all the answers

Why might Elizabeth choose to use psychophysics instead of fMRI in her experiment?

Because psychophysics is easier to administer Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of testing astronauts before and after their space flight?

To estimate the effect of space flight on orientation sensitivity Signup and view all the answers

What method would Elizabeth use to select the step sizes for her experiment?

Referring to existing literature Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the phonological loop in Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory model?

Temporary storage and rehearsal of verbal information Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a task that involves the use of the visuo-spatial sketchpad in everyday life?

Visual searches and navigation Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the experimental technique Elizabeth might use to measure orientation sensitivity?

Method of constant stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What would Elizabeth do with the responses collected from the participants?

Fit a function to estimate the participant's orientation threshold Signup and view all the answers

What is a common difficulty faced by individuals with phonological loop impairments?

Language learning difficulties Signup and view all the answers

What does the visuo-spatial sketchpad allow us to do with information stored in long-term memory?

Mentally visualise and manipulate the information Signup and view all the answers

Why might Elizabeth choose to use a perceptual measure of orientation sensitivity?

Because it is a more objective measure Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of using psychophysics in Elizabeth's experiment?

It is a more accessible and practical way to measure orientation sensitivity Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a profession that heavily relies on visual imagery?

Design-related fields Signup and view all the answers

How many components does Baddeley and Hitch's original Working Memory model have?

3 Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the phonological loop in language learning?

To temporarily hold new words in mind whilst longer-term memory traces are created Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the researchers who found that children and adults with phonological loop impairments can have language learning difficulties?

Baddeley et al. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common property observed across languages regardless of culture?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What did the deaf children in Nicaragua create when left without adult language input?

Sign language Signup and view all the answers

What is an implication of the universality of language acquisition in deaf children?

Cultural transmission is not necessary for language acquisition Signup and view all the answers

What is a feature of language that is demonstrated by the deaf children in Nicaragua?

Language is productive and can express infinite meanings Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a cross-cultural language property?

Syntax Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the sign language created by the deaf children in Nicaragua?

It is similar to other sign languages and has universal language features Signup and view all the answers

What does the developmental learning sequence suggest about language?

Language acquisition follows a similar sequence across cultures Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of sign language?

It has similar properties to spoken language Signup and view all the answers

What is the sequence that normally developing children follow in language development?

Babbling, then single words, then holophrases, and finally complex grammatical structures Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of language development that is universal across cultures?

The sequence of language development Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred from the fact that children follow a universal sequence in language development?

That language development is a combination of cultural and genetic factors Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the smallest units of sound in language?

Phonemes Signup and view all the answers

What can be demonstrated by creating an acoustic continuum across two phonemes?

That our perception of phonemes does not map perfectly onto physical reality Signup and view all the answers

What can be concluded from the fact that deaf children also follow the same language development sequence as hearing children?

That language development is a complex process involving multiple factors Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the phonological loop in Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory model?

Temporary storage and rehearsal of verbal information Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of sign language structure?

It has a universal grammar Signup and view all the answers

What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad responsible for in Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory model?

Temporary storage of visual information and spatial information Signup and view all the answers

What is an implication of the fact that language development follows a universal sequence across cultures?

That there are universal features of language that are hard-wired into the human brain Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the origin of the categorical perception of phonemes?

It is more general and not specific to language or humans Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a task that involves the use of the phonological loop in everyday life?

Remembering a phone number Signup and view all the answers

What is the key aspect of focussed visual attention that is similar to a spotlight?

Its ability to selectively focus on specific aspects of the environment Signup and view all the answers

What is a common difficulty faced by individuals with phonological loop impairments?

Language learning difficulties Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of something being 'illuminated' by the spotlight of attention?

We become consciously aware of it Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation of our attentional capacity, as compared to a spotlight?

We can only attend to a limited area or aspect of our environment at a time Signup and view all the answers

How many components does Baddeley and Hitch's original Working Memory model have?

3 Signup and view all the answers

What is an implication of the flexibility of attention, as compared to a spotlight?

We can shift our attention rapidly from one location to another Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a profession that heavily relies on visual imagery?

Architect Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between attention and awareness, according to the spotlight analogy?

Attention is the ability to focus, while awareness is the result of that focus Signup and view all the answers

What do research studies show about individuals with phonological loop impairments?

They can have language learning difficulties Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the visuo-spatial sketchpad in everyday life?

Navigation and visual searches Signup and view all the answers

What does the spotlight analogy suggest about the role of attention in processing information?

Attention is crucial for processing information efficiently and effectively Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the function of attention, based on the spotlight analogy?

Attention enables us to efficiently process information by selectively focusing on relevant aspects Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the central executive in working memory?

To control attention and coordinate other components Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a monocular cue used in visual perception?

Occlusion Signup and view all the answers

What happens when you engage in task switching, as described in the central executive's functions?

You switch your attention from one task to another Signup and view all the answers

What is the term given to the concept of one object blocking another object from view, indicating it is closer to the viewer?

Occlusion Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of trying to divide the phonological loop's limited resources between two tasks?

You experience a significant decrease in performance Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the central executive in the context of watching a movie and answering a phone call?

To switch attention from the movie to the phone call Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of binocular cues in visual perception?

To provide information about object depth based on differences between the left and right eye views Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of task switching in everyday life?

Switching attention from watching a movie to answering a phone call Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Decision-Making and Biases

People tend to exhibit confirmation bias, seeking evidence that confirms their hypotheses about relationships between entities, rather than looking for contradictory evidence.
Perfors and Navarro (2009) found that this approach is optimal in terms of information gained when the entities referred to by the hypothesis are rare.

Laboratory Studies on Confirmation Bias

The Wason Task demonstrates the existence of confirmation bias, as people tend to choose cards that confirm their hypothesis rather than those that could disconfirm it.
Hendrickson et al. (2016) showed that people seek confirming evidence when entities are rare, but seek disconfirming evidence when they are frequent.

Measuring Orientation Sensitivity

To measure orientation sensitivity, Elizabeth could use psychophysics, a technique that provides a robust, objective estimate.
She would test astronauts before and after their space flight, using the method of constant stimuli to estimate the participant's orientation threshold.

Models of Decision-Making

The heuristics and biases model proposes that people make decisions based on mental shortcuts and biases rather than rational calculation.

Working Memory Model

Original 1974 Working Memory Model by Baddeley and Hitch

The model consists of three components:

Phonological Loop

Responsible for temporary storage and rehearsal of verbal information, such as words and numbers.
Consists of two subcomponents.
Important for tasks like remembering phone numbers, following verbal instructions, and learning new vocabulary.
Impairments in the phonological loop can lead to language learning difficulties.

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad

Responsible for temporary storage of visual information and spatial information.
Involved in tasks like navigation and visual searches.
Used in professions that require visual imagery, such as design-related fields.

Language Universality

Language is considered universal because it is a fundamental aspect of human culture, used by people across different cultures and languages, including sign language.
Cross-cultural studies show that all languages share similar properties, such as syntactic categories, phonology, and the ability to express infinite ideas.
Deaf children in Nicaragua, with no language input, invented their own sign language, demonstrating that language acquisition is universal and not dependent on cultural transmission.
The developmental learning sequence is shared across cultures, with children following a similar pattern of language development, from babbling to complex grammar.

Categorical Perception

Categorical perception in spoken language refers to the processing of phonemes, the smallest units of sound in words.
Humans perceive phonemes categorically, meaning that our perception does not perfectly match the physical reality of sound waves.
This effect is not unique to humans and is also observed in other animals, like chinchillas.

Attention and Memory

Spotlight Analogy

The spotlight analogy describes focused visual attention as a beam that selectively focuses on specific aspects of the environment, ignoring others.
The analogy captures the key aspects of attention, including selective focus, limited capacity, flexibility, and awareness.

Working Memory Model

Baddeley and Hitch's (1974) Working Memory model consists of three components: the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and central executive.
The phonological loop is responsible for temporarily storing and rehearsing verbal information, such as phone numbers and vocabulary.
The visuo-spatial sketchpad is responsible for temporarily storing visual and spatial information, and mentally visualizing and manipulating information.
The central executive coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad, focusing attention, switching between tasks, and dividing attention.

Perception

Monocular and Binocular Cues

People use both monocular and binocular cues to judge the depth of an object.
A monocular cue is information from one eye only, such as occlusion, where one object occludes another, indicating it is closer to the viewer.
A binocular cue is information from both eyes, such as disparity, where the difference in location of an object in the left and right eye views indicates depth.

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Description

This quiz explores the concept of confirmation bias in decision-making, where people seek evidence that confirms their hypotheses. It discusses the optimal approach to hypothesis-testing and information gathering.