Henry VIII Foreign Policy 1509-1564

Foreign Policy 1509-1564

• Henry VIII's councilors initially favored peace, leading to the renewal of the Treaty of Etaples in 1510.
• Henry VIII diverged from his councilors' advice by joining Pope Julius II's Holy League in 1511, an alliance against France.
• The Holy League included England, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, Venice, and the Papacy.
• In 1512, Henry VIII deployed a 10,000-man army to France under the Marquis of Dorset, which mostly demoralized troops and increased expenses.
• King Ferdinand of Spain exploited the English campaign to conquer Navarre.
• A second expedition in 1513, led by Henry VIII, targeted northeastern France.
• The English won the Battle of Spurs and seized Tournai and Therouanne.
• The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye was negotiated in 1514, with Henry VIII receiving annual payments for relinquishing claims to the French throne.
• Tournai was later sold back to France for less than its reconstruction costs.
• The renegotiated pension from the Treaty of Etaples was lost.
• Ferdinand and Maximilian made separate peace treaties with France in 1514, abandoning the planned campaign.
• While Henry VIII was in France, Scotland, allied with France since 1512, invaded northeastern England.
• Catherine of Aragon, as regent, directed the Earl of Surrey to defend against the invasion.
• The Battle of Flodden in 1513 resulted in over 1,500 English and 10,000 Scottish deaths, including James IV.
• James IV's death weakened Scotland and strengthened the English army's reputation.
• Scotland was ruled by Margaret Tudor, Henry VIII's sister, and her son James V.
• Henry VIII liquidated assets to fund the wars, leading to a rebellion in Yorkshire because of taxation.

Years 1514-1526

• England was a minor power compared to France and Spain.
• Henry VIII overestimated his troops' strength.
• By the end of 1514, Henry VIII's funds were depleted, ending the war.
• Henry VIII arranged the marriage between his younger sister Mary and the French King Louis XII to ensure peace with France.
• Louis XII died on January 1, 1515, and Mary married the Duke of Suffolk soon after.
• Mary's marriage angered Henry VIII because she could no longer be used for diplomatic advantage.
• The deaths of Louis XII in 1515, Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516, and Maximilian I in 1519 resulted in new, young monarchs taking power.
• Francis I succeeded Louis XII and became a rival of Henry VIII.
• Charles V and Francis I formed an alliance, isolating England.
• Maximilian agreed to the Treaty of Cambrai with France, further isolating England.
• Francis I was prevented from appointing the Duke of Albany as regent of the Scottish throne.
• In 1519, Charles V became Holy Roman Emperor, King of Spain, and Duke of the Netherlands.
• Charles V pursued the Imperial claim in Milan, which was under French control.
• The Ottoman Turks had become powerful in the 15th century and they were Muslim and they hoped to spread the religion all over Eastern Europe.
• The Popes Crusade against the Ottomans paved the way for England to be at the center of European diplomacy
• England hosted major powers to pursue universal peace; around 24 countries signed agreements to avoid war.
• Wolsey was appointed Papal Legate in England.
• Relationships between England and France improved, and England agreed to return Tournai.
• Albany was kept out of Scotland to maintain peaceful relations between Scotland and England.
• The Field of the Cloth of Gold, a two-week meeting between Henry VIII and Francis I near Calais, cost Henry VIII about £15,000.
• Henry VIII lost a wrestling match against Francis I.
• In August 1521, Wolsey negotiated the Treaty of Bruges with Charles V, improving relations with the Pope.
• The Pope aimed to reduce French control in Italy.
• The treaty included a potential marriage between Charles and Henry VIII's daughter, Princess Mary.
• Henry VIII promised to send an army of 30,000 men into France following the treaty with Charles V.
• Parliament and the church resisted providing extraordinary revenue.
• A National Survey was set up in March 1522 to assess people's ability to pay tax.
• The Earl of Surrey invaded northern France in May 1522, with minimal impact.
• In the summer of 1523, 10,000 men under the Duke of Suffolk sailed to Calais to invade Bologne.
• Allies were captured and forced to flee.
• A Spanish imperial victory at the Battle of Pavia in 1525 led to the capture of the French King and death of much of the nobility.
• Henry VIII proposed another coalition with Spain to invade northern France.
• Charles V was unwilling to share the victory.
• Henry VIII introduced the amicable grant to fund a further campaign.
• This taxation led to revolts.
• Aftermath of the Battle of Pavia:
  • Henry VIII was forced to back down.
  • There were revolts against the Amicable Grant
  • Charles V rejected the marriage agreement with Princess Mary
  • Wolsey never recovered, and his planned divorce from Catherine of Aragon failed
• The fracturing of the Anglo Imperial alliance led Henry and Wolsey to a pro-French foreign policy and supported the League of Cognac.

Years 1527-1540

• Failure of the great matter (divorce from Catherine of Aragorn)
• Due to their weak position, Henry and Wolsey formed an anti-imperialist alliance with the French at the Treaty of Amiens in 1527.
• Wolsey's trade embargo in Burgundian lands failed, causing widespread unemployment.
• Charles solidified his power with a victory over the French at the Battle of Landriano in 1529.
• Charles' dominance over the Pope was apparent at the Peace of Cambrai, securing peace in Italy.
• England tried to consolidate with France but was in a weak position, so they sought alliance with the Pope.
• Henry broke with Rome to address his great matter while the Catholic Church was preoccupied with the Ottoman Empire.
• Cromwell negotiated with the League of Schmalkalden, resulting in no anti-Habsburg or anti-French alliance.
• Catherine of Aragon's death and Anne Boleyn's execution improved affairs and opened a renewed alliance with the Emperor.
• Henry's position weakened in 1538 when Charles V and Francis I agreed to sever connections with England in the Treaty of Nice, and the Pope excommunicated King Henry VIII.
• Facing a major invasion risk, Henry insisted on the publication of the Six Articles in June 1539, reinstating some Catholic doctrines.
• The marriage to Anne of Cleves also helped.
• The marriage became unnecessary when the relationship between Charles and Francis broke down.

Years 1540-1547

• Henry VIII's last years saw a return to the aggressive foreign policy of his early reign.
• Possible motivations included uniting the British Isles, achieving military glory, punishing James V, or ignoring pressure to break from Rome.
• In 1542, Henry sent the Duke of Norfolk to Scotland, leading to the Scottish army's defeat at the Battle of Solway Moss.
• James V died of shock, and his one-week-old daughter Mary inherited the throne.
• Henry tried to arrange the marriage between Edward and Mary with the Treaty of Greenwich, but the Scottish Parliament refused.
• The Earl of Hertford, later known as Protector Somerset, carried out raids on Edinburgh, Leith, and St Andrews.
• Buildings were burned, and people were killed indiscriminately in the "Rough Wooing" of Scotland.
• Henry's policies failed to secure his Scottish policy.
• Henry allied with the Habsburgs against France.
• They promised to invade France within two years.
• Henry successfully captured Boulogne.
• Charles made a separate peace treaty with France; England was under pressure when France sent troops to Scotland and the Mary Rose sank.
• The English were defeated at the Battle of Ancrum Moor by the Scots and a French force landed in the Isle of Wight.
• In 1546, the Treaty of Ardres was signed, resulting in Boulogne being returned to the French in 1554.
• The war was funded by selling monastic lands, borrowing money, and debasing the coinage.
• This debasement reduced the silver content of coins by substituting cheaper metals, with severe consequences.