Health Prevention and Disease Concepts
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Questions and Answers

Which of these options are examples of primary prevention in the health care system?

  • Pap smears
  • Antibiotic use
  • Immunizations (correct)
  • Surgery to remove a tumor

What is the difference between incidence and prevalence?

Incidence refers to the number of new cases of a disease within a specific population and time period, while prevalence measures the proportion of existing cases of a disease in a population at a specific point in time.

Which of the following is NOT a cardinal sign of inflammation?

  • Swelling
  • Redness
  • Numbness (correct)
  • Pain
  • Heat

What is the difference between a pneumothorax and a tension pneumothorax?

<p>A pneumothorax refers to the presence of air in the pleural space, which can cause partial or complete lung collapse. A tension pneumothorax is a more severe type where air enters the pleural space during inspiration but cannot escape, leading to a buildup of pressure in the chest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a risk factor for developing pulmonary embolism?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factors can contribute to left-sided heart failure?

<p>Left-sided heart failure is characterized by decreased cardiac output and signs of decreased tissue perfusion. Contributing factors include decreased cardiac output, activity intolerance, pulmonary congestion, impaired gas exchange, and pulmonary edema.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a common cause of chronic kidney disease?

<p>Asthma (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the kidneys in blood pressure regulation?

<p>The kidneys play a vital role in blood pressure regulation through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) and by controlling the volume of blood in the body. When blood pressure drops, the kidneys release renin, triggering a cascade that constricts blood vessels and increases sodium and water retention, leading to elevated blood pressure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of nephrotic syndrome?

<p>Massive proteinuria (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between stress incontinence and urge incontinence?

<p>Stress incontinence is the involuntary loss of urine due to increased intra-abdominal pressure, commonly triggered by activities like coughing, sneezing, or exercise. Urge incontinence, on the other hand, is characterized by an urgent need to urinate and involuntary leakage due to overactive bladder muscles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a cause of anemia?

<p>Hyperthyroidism (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the difference between conjugated and unconjugated bilirubin.

<p>Unconjugated bilirubin is the form of bilirubin that is not yet processed by the liver. It is insoluble in water and bound to albumin in the bloodstream. Conjugated bilirubin is the water-soluble form that has been processed by the liver and can be excreted in bile.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a symptom of heat exhaustion?

<p>High Fever (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease?

<p>Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects the substantia nigra in the brain. This area is responsible for producing dopamine, a neurotransmitter crucial for smooth muscle movement and coordination. The degeneration of these neurons leads to a depletion of dopamine, resulting in the characteristic motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, rigidity, and slow movement (bradykinesia).</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a symptom of Multiple Sclerosis?

<p>Hypersomnia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the five A's of Alzheimer's disease?

<p>The five A's of Alzheimer's disease are: anomia (inability to remember names), apraxia (inability to perform familiar tasks), agnosia (inability to recognize familiar objects), amnesia (memory loss), and aphasia (inability to express oneself through speech).</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a major complication of diabetes mellitus?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the role of gastric mucosa in protecting the stomach.

<p>The gastric mucosa serves as a protective barrier against the highly acidic environment and digestive enzymes present in the stomach. It is composed of specialized cells that secrete mucus, bicarbonate, and other substances, creating a layer that prevents damage to the underlying tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The pyloric sphincter controls the rate of stomach emptying.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is steatorrhea, and what can cause it?

<p>Steatorrhea refers to the presence of excessive fat in the stool. Common causes include malabsorption disorders, such as celiac disease, pancreatitis, and deficiencies in bile salts or pancreatic enzymes. Removal of the gallbladder can also lead to steatorrhea due to impaired fat digestion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common clinical manifestation of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?

<p>Heartburn (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of bile salts in the digestive process?

<p>Bile salts, produced by the liver, play a crucial role in the digestion and absorption of fats. They emulsify large fat globules, breaking them down into smaller micelles that can be more easily digested and absorbed by the small intestine.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hepatitis virus is most commonly transmitted through blood transfusions?

<p>Hepatitis C (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The formation of gallstones is primarily due to an excess of bilirubin in bile.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common cause of peptic ulcers?

<p>The most common cause of peptic ulcers is infection with Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), a bacterium that thrives in the acidic environment of the stomach.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of appendicitis?

<p>Sudden, severe pain in the lower right abdomen (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are some risk factors associated with peritonitis?

<p>Peritonitis, inflammation of the peritoneum, can be caused by various factors, including abdominal surgery, ectopic pregnancy, perforation of a stomach ulcer, trauma, appendicitis, and diverticulitis. Risk factors also include weakened immune systems and underlying medical conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a common symptom of esophageal cancer?

<p>Diarrhea (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis?

<p>Both Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis are inflammatory bowel diseases, but they differ in their location and the extent of the inflammation. Crohn's disease can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to the anus, while ulcerative colitis is confined to the colon. Crohn's disease is characterized by patchy inflammation, while ulcerative colitis causes continuous inflammation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Portal hypertension often results in a decrease in pressure within the portal venous system.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a risk factor for erectile dysfunction?

<p>Hypothyroidism (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the primary functions of the prostate gland?

<p>The prostate gland is a fibromuscular, glandular organ located inferior to the bladder. Its primary functions include secreting a thin, alkaline fluid that contributes to semen, adding volume and aiding sperm motility. It also plays a role in the elimination of urine through the prostatic urethra.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a symptom of hypogonadism in men?

<p>Reduced muscle mass (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Testicular torsion is a medical emergency that needs immediate attention.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a physiological effect of progesterone?

<p>Promotes growth of the alveolar structures in the breasts (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is menopause, and what are some common symptoms?

<p>Menopause is the natural cessation of menstrual periods, marking the end of a woman's reproductive years. It is caused by the depletion of ovarian follicles and a decline in estrogen production. Common symptoms include hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, mood swings, sleep disturbances, and urinary urgency.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is TRUE about HPV?

<p>HPV is the most common STI in the US. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), and who is most at risk?

<p>Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of the upper reproductive tract, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. It is often caused by sexually transmitted infections, particularly chlamydia and gonorrhea. Young women, especially those who are sexually active, have multiple sexual partners, or have a history of PID, are at higher risk of developing PID.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of gonorrhea?

<p>Often asymptomatic (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Chlamydia is a common cause of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID).

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the characteristics of bacterial vaginosis.

<p>Bacterial vaginosis is characterized by a thin, milky-white or gray vaginal discharge with a fishy odor. A whiff test (a pungent odor when a 10% potassium hydroxide solution is applied to the discharge) is often positive. The vaginal pH is typically elevated, usually above 4.5, and the presence of 'clue cells,' which are epithelial cells covered with bacteria, is a microscopic finding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions could lead to vascular dementia?

<p>Hypertension (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main goal of tertiary prevention?

<p>To reduce complications and prevent further deterioration of existing disease (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the term 'etiology'?

<p>The cause or trigger of a disease (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of acid-base balance, what causes respiratory acidosis?

<p>CO2 retention due to hypoventilation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which manifestations are associated with respiratory alkalosis?

<p>Lightheadedness and shortness of breath (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between prevalence and incidence?

<p>Prevalence focuses on existing disease in a population at a given time, while incidence measures new cases over a specified time (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Metabolic acidosis is typically characterized by which of the following?

<p>Low pH and low bicarbonate levels (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary treatment for respiratory alkalosis?

<p>Rebreath exhaled CO2 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of prevention involves measures such as immunization?

<p>Primary prevention (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal when treating alkalosis?

<p>Treat the underlying issue (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a manifestation of pneumothorax?

<p>Weight gain (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What complication is a direct result of a tension pneumothorax?

<p>Pressure build-up on heart (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions can lead to dyspnea?

<p>Obesity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a primary risk factor for developing DVT?

<p>Immobilization (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is associated with hypocalcemia during alkalosis?

<p>Hyperactive reflexes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential treatment for a large pneumothorax?

<p>Chest tube placement (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological change may occur with left-sided heart failure?

<p>Building up of pressure in the lungs (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following does NOT characterize a pulmonary embolism?

<p>Swelling in arms (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of pulse oximetry?

<p>Determine oxygen saturation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes type 1 diabetes mellitus?

<p>Destruction of pancreatic beta cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition results from an imbalance of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters in the corpus striatum?

<p>Parkinson’s Disease (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely symptom of hyperglycemia?

<p>Increased thirst (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a cause of peptic ulcers?

<p>Chronic stress (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is characteristic of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?

<p>Regurgitation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a complication that can arise from Crohn's disease?

<p>Fistulas formation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during hepatitis A infection?

<p>Usually self-limiting (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary function of bile salts in digestion?

<p>Absorbing digested fat (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What common risk factor is associated with developing vascular dementia?

<p>Diabetes Mellitus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following diet and lifestyle changes is essential for managing type 2 diabetes?

<p>Exercise regularly (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is considered a normal cardiac output range resting level?

<p>4-8 L/min (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor decreases stroke volume?

<p>High afterload (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which GFR level suggests chronic kidney disease?

<p>50 mL/min (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does angiotensin II play in blood pressure regulation?

<p>Acts as a vasoconstrictor (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which stage of chronic kidney disease is there a GFR of 15-29 mL/min?

<p>Stage 4 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the urge to urinate during bladder fullness?

<p>Stretch receptors activation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of urinary incontinence involves the bladder failing to empty completely?

<p>Overflow incontinence (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common symptom of heat exhaustion?

<p>Nausea and fatigue (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which test is more accurate for measuring kidney function but less common due to inconvenience?

<p>24-hour urine test (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is characterized by the unregulated overproduction of red cell mass?

<p>Polycythemia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does aldosterone have in the kidneys?

<p>Promotes sodium reabsorption (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential cause of anemia related to red blood cell production?

<p>Inadequate hemoglobin synthesis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following actions occurs during the bladder filling phase?

<p>Detrusor muscle relaxes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Primary Prevention

Actions taken to prevent a disease from occurring in the first place by eliminating risk factors. Often implemented at the community level.

Secondary Prevention

Early detection and treatment of disease to prevent progression and complications. Primarily conducted in clinical settings.

Tertiary Prevention

Focuses on managing and reducing complications of an existing disease, extending beyond primary treatment.

Etiology

The study of the causes of diseases, including the factors that contribute to their development.

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Pathogenesis

The process of how a disease develops and progresses over time. It describes the mechanisms and steps involved in the disease process.

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Clinical Manifestations

The observable signs and symptoms that indicate the presence of a disease.

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Prevalence vs. Incidence

Prevalence measures the total number of existing cases of a disease in a population at a given point in time. Incidence measures the number of new cases that occur within a specified time period in a population at risk.

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Morbidity

The impact a disease has on an individual's life, including the severity, duration, and quality of life.

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Mortality

The number of deaths caused by a specific disease within a population.

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Cardinal Signs of Inflammation (Latin Terms)

The classic signs of inflammation, including redness (rubor), warmth (calor), swelling (tumor), pain (dolor), and loss of function (functio laesa).

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Direct Contact Transmission

The spread of pathogens through direct physical contact with an infected person or contaminated object.

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Ingestion Transmission

The spread of pathogens through consuming contaminated food or water.

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Inhalation Transmission

The spread of pathogens through breathing in contaminated air.

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Penetration Transmission

The spread of pathogens through piercing the skin, such as through needlestick injury or bites.

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Incubation Stage

The time period between exposure to a pathogen and the onset of symptoms.

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Prodromal Stage

The period of early, non-specific symptoms that precede the characteristic symptoms of a disease.

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Acute Stage

The period when the disease is most severe, with the full emergence of characteristic symptoms.

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Convalescent Stage

The period of recovery and healing after the acute stage, as the body gradually eliminates the pathogen.

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Respiratory Alkalosis

A condition characterized by increased blood pH and decreased carbon dioxide (CO2) levels.

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Respiratory Acidosis

A condition characterized by decreased blood pH and increased carbon dioxide (CO2) levels.

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Metabolic Alkalosis

A condition characterized by increased blood pH and increased carbon dioxide (CO2) levels.

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Metabolic Acidosis

A condition characterized by decreased blood pH and decreased carbon dioxide (CO2) levels.

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Dyspnea

Subjective difficulty breathing, often characterized by shortness of breath, air hunger, or breathlessness.

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Epiglottitis

Inflammation of the epiglottis, a flap of tissue at the top of the windpipe, leading to airway obstruction.

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Pneumothorax

Presence of air in the pleural space, the space between the lung and chest wall, resulting in lung collapse.

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Spontaneous Pneumothorax

A pneumothorax that occurs without a known cause, often due to the rupture of a lung bleb.

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Open Pneumothorax

A pneumothorax where air freely enters and exits the chest during breathing.

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Tension Pneumothorax

A pneumothorax where air enters the chest with inspiration but cannot escape with expiration, causing pressure buildup.

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Pulse Oximetry

A non-invasive method to measure the oxygen levels in the blood using a sensor placed on a finger or earlobe.

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Pulmonary Embolism

A blockage in an artery in the lung, often by a blood clot, leading to reduced blood flow.

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Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)

Formation of a blood clot in a deep vein, usually in the legs, which can travel to the lungs.

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Aortic Aneurysm

A ballooning or bulging of the aorta, the main artery carrying blood from the heart.

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Heart Failure

A condition where the heart cannot pump blood effectively, leading to fluid buildup and reduced oxygen delivery.

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What is Prevalence?

Prevalence measures the total number of existing cases of a disease in a population at a given point in time.

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What is Incidence?

Incidence measures the number of new cases of a disease that occur within a specified time period in a population at risk.

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What is Etiology?

Etiology refers to the cause or origin of a disease, including the factors that trigger its development.

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What is Pathogenesis?

Pathogenesis describes the development and progression of a disease over time, including its mechanisms and impact on the body.

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What is Respiratory Acidosis?

Respiratory acidosis occurs when there is a decrease in blood pH and an increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels.

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What are some causes of Respiratory Acidosis?

Respiratory acidosis can be caused by various factors affecting breathing, including pulmonary issues like pneumonia, COPD, or ARDS, as well as hypoventilation due to medications or conditions like chest trauma.

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What is Metabolic Acidosis?

Metabolic acidosis occurs when both blood pH and bicarbonate (HCO3-) levels are low.

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What are some causes of Metabolic Acidosis?

Metabolic acidosis can be caused by conditions that lead to loss of bicarbonate, such as diarrhea, or overproduction of acid, such as diabetes ketoacidosis (DKA) or kidney failure.

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What is Acidosis?

When the body's pH level is too acidic, often caused by too much carbon dioxide in the blood. It can be dangerous and lead to complications.

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Acidosis Manifestations

Symptoms like headache, confusion, and rapid, deep breathing are the body's attempts to compensate for the acidosis to restore balance.

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Acidosis Treatment

Focuses on addressing the underlying cause, watching potassium levels, and potentially needing dialysis.

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What is Alkalosis?

The opposite of acidosis, where the body's pH level is too high, often due to excessive bicarbonate (HCO3-) in the blood.

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Alkalosis Manifestations

Signs like muscle twitches, shallow breathing, and kidney attempts to excrete excess bicarbonate are the body's responses to alkalosis's imbalance.

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What is Dyspnea?

Difficulty breathing or shortness of breath, often a signal of dysfunction within the lungs, heart, or other organs.

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What is a Pneumothorax?

When air enters the space between the lung and the chest wall, causing the lung to collapse, either partially or completely.

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Types of Pneumothorax

Spontaneous happens without injury, Secondary due to existing lung disease, Traumatic caused by injury, and Tension is a life-threatening type with air trapped in chest.

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What is Pulse Oximetry?

A non-invasive way to measure oxygen levels in the blood, important for assessing lung function.

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What is a Pulmonary Embolism?

A blood clot obstructs an artery in the lungs, blocking blood flow and causing breathing difficulties.

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What is heatstroke?

A serious condition where the body's temperature regulation system fails, leading to dangerously high body temperatures.

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What is Parkinson's Disease?

A progressive neurological disorder that affects movement, caused by the degeneration of dopamine-producing cells in the brain.

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What happens to the brain in Parkinson's Disease?

Dopamine-producing cells in the brain's basal ganglia are destroyed, leading to a depletion of dopamine, which helps control movement.

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What are the two main types of diabetes?

Type 1 diabetes is caused by the destruction of insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. Type 2 diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance.

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What is hyperglycemia?

A condition where there is too much sugar (glucose) in the blood.

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What is hypoglycemia?

A condition where there is too little sugar (glucose) in the blood.

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What is sensory neuropathy and who is it common in?

A condition where nerve damage causes impaired sensation, often in the feet and lower legs. It is common in people with diabetes.

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What is the role of the pyloric sphincter?

A muscular valve that controls the flow of food from the stomach to the small intestine, preventing backflow.

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What is steatorrhea?

Fatty stool caused by poor fat absorption in the small intestine, often due to the removal of the gallbladder.

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What is gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?

A condition where stomach acid flows back up into the esophagus, causing irritation and discomfort.

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Cardiac Output

The volume of blood pumped by the heart each minute. A key indicator of how well the heart delivers oxygen to the body.

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Stroke Volume

The amount of blood ejected from the heart with each beat.

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Preload

The amount of blood in the heart's chambers before contraction. More preload means more blood to pump out.

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Contractility

The force of the heart's contraction. Stronger contractions pump more blood.

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Afterload

The resistance the heart must overcome to pump blood out. High blood pressure increases afterload.

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Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)

The rate at which blood is filtered by the kidneys. It measures how well the kidneys remove waste.

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Creatinine Levels

A blood test measuring creatinine, a waste product. High creatinine suggests poor kidney filtration.

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24-Hour Urine Test

A test collecting urine for 24 hours to measure creatinine excretion. A more accurate GFR measure.

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Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)

A complex system that regulates blood pressure by controlling salt and water retention.

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Angiotensin 2

A powerful vasoconstrictor that increases blood pressure by narrowing blood vessels.

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Aldosterone

A hormone that increases salt and water reabsorption, leading to higher blood volume and pressure.

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Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

A hormone released by the heart to lower blood pressure by increasing kidney filtration.

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Nephrotic Syndrome

A kidney disorder characterized by protein in the urine, high cholesterol, and swelling.

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Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

A progressive decline in kidney function over time, eventually leading to kidney failure.

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Stages of CKD

A classification system defining the severity of CKD based on GFR levels.

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Study Notes

Types of Prevention

  • Primary: Removing risk factors to prevent disease. Accomplished outside healthcare systems at a community level. Examples include immunizations.
  • Secondary: Detecting disease early when it's still curable. Done in clinical settings. Examples include pap smears.
  • Tertiary: Preventing further deterioration or reducing complications of a disease. This goes beyond initial treatment, such as using antibiotics.

Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Clinical Manifestations

  • Etiology: The cause of a disease.
  • Pathogenesis: How a disease process evolves.
  • Clinical Manifestations: Signs and symptoms of a disease.

Prevalence and Incidence

  • Prevalence: A measure of existing disease in a population at a specific point in time.
  • Incidence: The number of new cases of a disease arising in a population at risk during a defined time period.

Morbidity and Mortality

  • Morbidity: Describes the effect a disease has on a person's life.
  • Morbidity rate: Examines how many people have a certain disease in a defined population.
  • Mortality: Pertains to causes of death in a specific population.
  • Mortality rate: The number of deaths in a year in a given population.

Cardinal Signs of Inflammation

  • Rubor: Redness
  • Calor: Heat
  • Tumor: Swelling
  • Dolor: Pain
  • Functio Laesa: Loss of function

Modes of Transmission

  • Direct Contact
  • Ingestion
  • Inhalation
  • Penetration

Disease Course

  • Incubation: Pathogens may not produce recognizable symptoms.
  • Prodromal Stage: Initial symptoms appear before a specific disease indication or worse symptoms.
  • Acute Stage: Host experiences the maximal impact of infection symptoms.
  • Convalescent: Containment and elimination of pathogens, resolution of symptoms.

Respiratory Alkalosis and Acidosis

  • Respiratory Alkalosis: pH increases, CO2 decreases.
  • Respiratory Acidosis: pH decreases, CO2 increases.
  • Metabolic Alkalosis: pH increases, CO2 increases.
  • Metabolic Acidosis: pH decreases, CO2 decreases.

Dyspnea

  • Subjective difficulty breathing. Includes chest tightness, shortness of breath, air hunger, or breathlessness.

6-P's of Dyspnea

  • Possible foreign body
  • Pulmonary bronchial constriction
  • Pulmonary embolism
  • Pneumothorax
  • Pneumonia
  • Pump failure

Epiglottitis

  • Airway inflammation resulting in obstruction.
  • Increased pulse and respirations
  • Restlessness
  • Retractions
  • Anxiety
  • Inspiratory stridor
  • Drooling

Pneumothorax

  • Presence of air in the pleural space.
  • Causes partial or complete collapse of the affected lung.
  • Spontaneous pneumothorax arises from a ruptured bleb on the lung surface.
  • Rupture allows atmospheric air to enter the pleural cavity.

Open Pneumothorax/Communicating and Tension Pneumothorax

  • Open pneumothorax: Air enters the chest during inspiration and exits during expiration.
  • Tension pneumothorax:Air enters during inhalation but cannot leave the chest during exhalation

Pulse Oximetry

  • Painless, non-invasive procedure to measure oxygen levels in the blood.
  • Detects hypoxia.

Pulmonary Embolism

  • Blockage in a lung artery.
  • Clot in an artery blocking blood flow.
  • Often arising from deep veins of the legs (DVT)
  • Can cause pulmonary infarction.

Risks of Immobilization

  • Deep vein thrombosis (DVT)
  • Blood clots in veins. (Usually legs)
  • Swelling and pain.

Aortic Aneurysm

  • An aneurysm in the aorta can cause a blood clot.
  • Swelling and pain in the chest.

Heart Failure

  • Left-sided: Decreased cardiac output, activity intolerance, pulmonary congestion.
  • Right-sided: Peripheral tissue congestion, dependent edema and ascites, GI tract congestion.

Cardiac Preload and Afterload

  • Preload: Pressure from blood volume in ventricles at the end of diastole.
  • Afterload: Resistance left ventricle must overcome to circulate blood. Increased in hypertension and vasoconstriction.

Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output

  • Stroke Volume (SV): Amount of blood pumped with each beat.
  • Cardiac Output (CO): SV * HR

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)

  • Measurement of blood flow through kidneys.
  • Measured amount of glomerular filtrate moves into tubular segments of nephron.

Role of the Kidney in Blood Pressure Regulation

  • Sympathetic stimulation affects renal blood flow.
  • Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) activation affects sodium and water retention.

Nephrotic Syndrome

  • Constellation of clinical findings from inc. glomerular permeability and loss of plasma proteins in the urine.
  • Characterized by massive proteinuria (greater than 3.5 g/day), lipiduria, and hypoalbuminemia (less than 3g/dL).

Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease

  • CKD commonly arises from hypertension and diabetic kidney disease.
  • GFR progressively reduces
  • Severe reduction in GFR < 15 may need renal replacement therapy

Process of Bladder Emptying

  • Urine flow from the kidneys through the ureters to the bladder.
  • Ureters enter the bladder on the sides, near the base of bladder for entry into the urethra.
  • Trigone is where the ureters join the bladder.
  • Micturition is the process of voluntary bladder emptying

Types of Urinary Incontinence

  • Stress: Loss of urine associated with increased intra-abdominal pressure.
  • Overactive bladder/Urge: Urgency and frequency caused by detrusor muscle hyperactivity.
  • Overflow: Loss of urine with increased pressure over maximal urethral pressure.
  • Functional: Inability to reach the bathroom for urination due to cognitive or physical problems.

Serum and Plasma

  • Serum is blood without clotting factors.
  • Plasma is blood with clotting factors.

Anemia

  • Abnormally low number of circulating red blood cells or a low level of hemoglobin.
  • Diminished oxygen-carrying capacity.

Hemoglobin

  • Vehicle for oxygen and carbon dioxide transport in red blood cells.

Red Blood Cell Production

  • Red bone marrow produces red blood cells.
  • Production declines after age 20.

Polycythemia

  • Increase in RBC mass. Can be relative (loss of vascular fluid) or primary (proliferation disease of bone marrow).

Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)

  • Widespread coagulation and bleeding in the vascular compartment.
  • Massive activation of the coagulation cascade following unregulated thrombin generation.

Hemoglobin Synthesis

  • Rate depends on iron availability.

Destruction of Red Blood Cells

  • Spleen responsible for RBC destruction.
  • Unconjugated bilirubin accumulates from excessive RBC destruction in the blood.

Conjugated vs. Unconjugated Bilirubin

  • Conjugated: Processed by the liver, soluble in water, and excreted in bile.
  • Unconjugated: Not yet processed by the liver, insoluble in water, and attached to albumin until processed by liver.

Hemolytic Anemia

  • Low number of RBC due to excessive hemolysis.

Leukemias vs. Lymphomas

  • Leukemias: Malignant blood disorders originating from hematopoietic stem cells. Classified according to the cell lineage.
  • Lymphomas: Originate in lymphatic tissue.

Infectious Mononucleosis (Mono)

  • Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) causes a self-limited lymphoproliferative disorder.

Heat Cramps

  • Slow, painful muscle cramps from salt and fluid loss during strenuous activities.

Heat Exhaustion

  • Profuse sweating, elevated heart rate and body temperature, and symptoms indicating heat cramps.

Heat Stroke

  • Failure in thermoregulation with high core body temperature, dry skin, lack of sweating.

Parkinson's Disease

  • Degeneration of basal ganglia, causing tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesia (slow movement).

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

  • Progressive neurologic disorder that affects motor function.

Multiple Sclerosis

  • Demyelination disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by exacerbations and remissions.

Alzheimer's Disease

  • Progressive brain disease accounting for 60-80% of dementia cases.
  • Short-term memory loss, personality changes, and impaired cognitive function are early signs.

Severe Alzheimer's Disease

  • Inability to respond to environment
  • Require total care
  • Complications related to chronic debilitation

Vascular Dementia

  • Thought processes impaired because of the brain damage caused by impaired blood flow to brain.

Negative Feedback Loop

  • Most common mechanism of hormone control. A feature of hormone action inhibits further hormone secretion so that the hormone level returns to an ideal level.

Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus

  • Microvascular: Neuropathies, nephropathies, retinopathies
  • Macrovascular: Coronary, cerebral, and peripheral vascular disease.
  • Gastrointestinal disorders and foot ulcers.

Type I Diabetes

  • Majority of DM cases with relative insulin deficiency.
  • Formerly called adult onset, non-insulin dependent DM.
  • Strong genetic component
  • High, normal, or low insulin levels (insulin resistance).

Type I Diabetes

  • Majority of DM cases with relative insulin deficiency.
  • Formerly called adult onset, non-insulin dependent DM.
  • Strong genetic component
  • High, normal, or low insulin levels (insulin resistance).

Hyperglycemia

  • Imbalance between insulin secretion and cellular responsiveness.
  • Body cells aren't able to take up glucose, and glucose levels increase.

Hypoglycemia

  • Low blood sugar.

Sensory Neuropathy

  • Microvascular damage from advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and reactive oxygen species (ROS).

Cholelithiasis

  • Precipitation of substances contained in bile (mainly cholesterol and bilirubin) leading to gallstones.

Peptic Ulcers

  • Ulcerative disorders in areas exposed to acid-pepsin secretions.
  • Common causes include H. pylori, aspirin use, other factors

Appendicitis

  • Inflammation, swelling, and potential gangrene of the appendix.
  • Abrupt onset pain, usually affecting the periumbilical or epigastric area that progressively localizes to the right lower quadrant.

Esophageal Cancer

  • Malignant tumors in the esophagus.
  • Several types, including squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma.

Diverticulitis

  • Inflammation of diverticula (small pouches) in the colon.
  • Pain in lower left quadrant, tenderness, fever, nausea and vomiting.

Crohn's Disease

  • Recurrent granuloma inflammatory response affecting any area of the GI tract from mouth to anus.

Portal Hypertension

  • Increased resistance to flow in the portal venous system

Hepatitis

  • Viral infection of the liver, potentially leading to chronic inflammation and liver damage.

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)

  • Inflammation of the upper reproductive tract.
  • Polymicrobial infection, often from Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis.

Sexually Transmitted Infections

  • Broad range of diseases transmitted through sexual contact. Examples are Herpes, Gonorrhea, Syphilis and Chlamydia.

Chlamydia

  • Common STI frequently with few or no symptoms
  • Can lead to PID if untreated.

Bacterial Vaginosis

  • Caused by an imbalance of bacteria in the vagina.

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)

  • Symptoms or mucosal damage produced by abnormal reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus or oral cavity.
  • May include pain in back or neck, dyspepsia, increased burping, bloating and pain after meals.

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NURS-4322 Final Exam Study Guide PDF

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Explore the various types of disease prevention, including primary, secondary, and tertiary strategies. Understand key concepts like etiology, pathogenesis, prevalence, and incidence. This quiz will test your knowledge of health concepts critical to public health and clinical practice.

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