Hate Crime and Identity

• The text examines racially and ethnically motivated hate crime as a means of constructing identity and difference.
• Racially driven violence is presented as a normative way of asserting racial identity against a victimized other.
• Racism is not an aberration but a means to allocate privilege.
• Hate crime is influenced by broader social and institutional patterns.
• People are held accountable to their race or ethnic category.

Identity Performances

• Actions can be judged based on race category.
• For example, Hispanic youth excelling in school may be discredited for crossing racial boundaries.
• White youth who victimize this Hispanic counterpart may be rewarded for reinforcing racial boundaries.
• Hate crime preserves boundaries through violence, becoming a racial project linking structural meanings and cultural identity.
• Hate crime occurs within institutional contexts, defining appropriate places for victims and victimizers.

Racialized Contours

• The racialized aspects of culture, sexuality, power, and labor influence "doing race."
• Racially motivated hate crime supplements constructing identity within institutions.
• The document focuses on White violence against racial and ethnic minorities.
• Minority-on-minority violence reflects hierarchical conflict and can be a way to transcend discrimination.

Hegemonic Influence

• Subordinate groups may use racism to explain relationships with other groups.
• Subordinate groups depend on a dominant group's will and leftovers.
• Hegemonic constructions of race/gender infuse subordinate group experiences.
• White-on-non-White violence differs substantially from other forms.

Statistics and Underreporting

• Minority groups underreport bias-motivated victimization due to fear or lack of confidence in law enforcement.
• White victims might overreport racially motivated violence due to perceived affronts to status.
• Little scholarly literature exists on anti-White violence.

Counting Racial and Ethnic Violence

• The data on ethnoviolence is flawed, making it hard to determine if it is rising.
• Hate crime data collection mirrors other UCR data, carrying similar deficiencies.
• Hate crimes are more underreported than UCR offenses.
• The undocumented may fear status revelation, and victims fear secondary victimization or police indifference.
• FBI data counts only designated criminal offenses, missing other forms of violence/harassment.
• UCR data is the most comprehensive database, providing information on general patterns.

UCR Data Summary

• Race is the most frequent motivator of hate crime.
• Racial bias accounts for about a third of incidents, rising above 70% when ethnicity is included.
• African Americans are the most likely victims.
• They represent roughly 1/3 of the victims of hate crime despite being a small portion of the population.
• Jews are the second most victimized group, representing the majority of religious bias victims.
• White offenders are the majority among offenders.
• Racially motivated hate crimes disproportionately involve physical threat/harm over property crimes.

Supplemental Resources

• The UCR program is a starting point but should be supplemented with data from non-governmental bodies.
• Anti-Defamation League (ADL) data tracks anti-Semitic violence beyond the U.S.

Anti-Semitic Violence

• Since 1979, ADL audits anti-Semitic violence.
• The ADL tracks murder, assaults, arsons, and harassment, vandalism and anti-Semitic literature distribution.
• Anti-Semitic violence has increasingly moved from property to personal crimes since 1991
• A decline in the number of anti-Semitic incidents since 1995 corresponds to increased intensity of violence.

Other Violence Data

• There is no national audit of racially motivated violence outside of anti-Semitism.
• SPLC’s Intelligence Report catalogs bias incidents from media, public, and police reports
• The report includes brief narratives.
• Some regional organizations collect hate crime data.

Localized research

• Some local and national organizations are involved in survey research on hate crime.
• The National Institute Against Prejudice and Violence publishes reports on workplace and campus ethnoviolence.
• Los Angeles County Office of Education documented an increase in racial hate crime
• Localized data has limited generalizability.
• Arab American Anti-Discrimination Committee/National Asian Pacific American Legal Consortium combats anti-Asian violence.
• Their annual audits of provide summary numbers synopses, legal actions, regional analyses, and extensive policy recommendations.
• Data shows anti-Asian violence rose to anti-immigrant sentiment.

Racism and Violence

• Racially and ethnically motivated violence is a daily possibility for minorities.
• Violence is a physical expression of endemic racism.
• Racism is both structured and a cultural field of discourse.
• Racism encompasses exclusion, marginalization, violence, legitimized through ideologies.
• Racist discourse provides norms that inform explicit practices.
• The American identity is rooted in a presumption of what it is to be American (suggesting Whiteness).
• Ethnoviolence is an arena to recreate primacy of Whiteness where racial distinction can be reaffirmed.
• Stereotypes distinguish the racialized other to justify hostile treatment.
• Stereotypes are loaded with disparaging associations.
• They provide motive and rationale for verbal/physical assaults on minority groups.
• Active construction of Whiteness exploits stereotypes to legitimate violence.
• Individuals carry stereotypes into social interaction, whether they are correct.
• Violence becomes an effort to prove one's Whiteness relative to the defiled other.
• Perpetrators remove themselves from a victim group via violence.
• The Black Youths were excluded to threats and presumed to have robbery , sexual assault ect

Sexual Standards

• People of color are held as a foil for good moral and sexual standards.
• Violence helps reestablish hierarchy as well as morality.

Racialized Sexuality

• White Americans view sexuality as one of the most palpable areas of racial divides.
• People of color are subjected to hostility due to perceived sexual impropriety.
• Non-White male sexualities are constructed dangerous to White women.
• The White fear of Black bodies is from sexual myths about potential of power.
• Hate crime reinforces White sexuality while punishing color or sexual impropriety.
• Hate crime emasculates the sexual threat, creating boundaries between groups.
• Relations of White relationship with Black males that had people narrowly defined sexuality wise.

Postbelum Culture

• Sexualized image of Black males were reproduced in postbellum culture.
• Black rapists were castrated to an effort and erase image, which highlight nature and White males reinforced White males as power.

Black Male Predation

• The presumption underlies racial violence to contemporary era.
• It emerged through the Willie Horton ads as well as Mike’s trial for assault.
• Image through which White perceive Blacks, and it provides content for racist motivations.
• In Interviewing White students, they claimed to have a proclaimed right and duty that they protect the chastity of White girls
• There’s Much expression racism centers with entitled White’s access for Whites.
• The act of protecting girls leads to a code of behaviour towards White boys

Defending girls

• White Boys also defending selves, which is a sanctity and care, to the youth that react to brooder culture
• Boundaries crossing is only unnatural but is a threatening rigid.

Anti-miscegenation

• How else can the White race maintain it’s a purity.
• "Contamination" introduces what’s lacks to what revives deficiencies and character.
• Strom links White supremacy arguing Whites. Race Mixing constitutes part agenda.

Boundaries

• Race mixing is deemed one loss of White power by violating an order of established hierarchy.
• With mudding board, boundaries of the races threw the questions to which emerging is the enforced relationships between Whites and people of color

(Dis)empowering Race

• Obviously hall Mark of racism as a structure what dominates the groups and in power of non-White racial.
• Racial minorities been been limited in power.
• Categorizations and instructions had civil exclusions.

Power

• Power wielding by Whites exercise through way to support the very myths of that underlie racism and myths that are power.
• Historically has been cautious imposing restrictions.

Consistent Franchisement

• Although is no ethnic or racial the group legally excluded US citizenship at this time, it not nessicarily of all that the group that enjoying.
• Racial minorities continue and is not able to access to civil rights.
• Violations civil rights from array of racial groups as endemic.
• The 1997 sweep with those whose civil rights and breach liberties those dozens of apparently, his banish citizens producing those supposed ethnicity

Unequal Power

• Racially-motivated violence is implicated to maintain those power. Also a mechanism particularly assert a version from what had the power of race.
• Nor difficult it is to illustrate the contemporization.
• Violence Empowering users like corresponding for the cultural dominion boasts the latter his killing.

Derogatory use

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