Harappan Society Overview

Harappan Society

• Flourishing cities in the Indus River Valley emerged from Neolithic villages around 3000 BCE.
• The Indus River, fed by the Himalayan and Hindu Kush mountains, enabled large-scale agriculture.
• Crops included wheat, barley, and cotton; livestock included cattle, sheep, goats, and chickens.
• Agricultural surpluses fueled population growth and specialized labor, leading to the development of major cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
• These cities, larger than contemporary Mesopotamian and Egyptian cities, were located in present-day Pakistan and northern India.
• Harappan society exhibited careful city planning, with grid layouts, consistent building materials, weights, measures, and architectural styles.
• Evidence suggests a strong, centralized political organization possibly resembling city-states, with large granaries potentially serving as centers for tax collection.
• Specialized labor supported trade, including pottery, tools, decorative items, and—from 2300 BCE to 1750 BCE—extensive trade with Mesopotamia.
• Social distinctions existed based on wealth, with significant differences in housing between the rich and poor.
• Advanced sanitation systems, including private bathrooms and efficient sewage systems, were a hallmark of the civilization.
• Religious practices centered around fertility cults, with gods and goddesses associated with creation and procreation, some of which influenced later Hinduism.
• The Harappan civilization declined around 1900 BCE, possibly due to natural disasters (flooding, earthquakes), and desiccation (lack of water) leading to famine. However, cultural traditions persisted.

Indo-European Migrations and Early Aryan India

• Around 1900 BCE, following the decline of the Harappan civilization, Indo-European-speaking peoples, known as Aryans, migrated into India via the Hindu Kush mountains.
• These nomadic pastoralists established small agricultural and herding communities in northern India, interacting—both peacefully and conflictually—with existing populations, including the Dravidians.
• Their economy was centered on a pastoral system, with cattle serving as a significant measure of wealth.
• Horses, imported from Central Asia, played an important role in their culture and warfare.

The Vedas and the Vedic Age

• The Aryans developed a rich oral tradition, eventually codified in the Vedas, a collection of hymns, songs, prayers, and rituals.
• The Rig Veda, the oldest and most important of the four Vedas, contains 1,028 hymns dedicated to the Aryan gods and was compiled between 1400 BCE and 900 BCE, committed to writing around 600 BCE.
• The Vedas represent the priestly perspective and were crucial for conducting sacrificial rituals.
• The Vedic Age (1500–500 BCE) saw interactions and conflicts between the Aryans and the indigenous populations (Dasas), competition over resources and land.
• The Aryan war god Indra is prominently featured in the Vedas.
• Despite conflicts, the Aryans also adopted Dravidian agricultural techniques and integrated aspects of indigenous cultures.