Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary role of the utricle and saccule in the vestibular apparatus?
What is the primary role of the utricle and saccule in the vestibular apparatus?
Which of the following is NOT one of the primary tastes detected by taste receptors?
Which of the following is NOT one of the primary tastes detected by taste receptors?
What type of axons are involved in primary taste transmission?
What type of axons are involved in primary taste transmission?
How long is the typical lifespan of taste bud cells?
How long is the typical lifespan of taste bud cells?
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Which part of the brain is the gustatory nucleus located in?
Which part of the brain is the gustatory nucleus located in?
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What is the primary mechanism for the generation of olfactory receptor potential?
What is the primary mechanism for the generation of olfactory receptor potential?
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Which statement regarding olfactory receptor genes is correct?
Which statement regarding olfactory receptor genes is correct?
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What type of coding is involved in the processing of olfactory information?
What type of coding is involved in the processing of olfactory information?
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What is long-term potentiation?
What is long-term potentiation?
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Which type of memory is characterized by knowing how to perform tasks?
Which type of memory is characterized by knowing how to perform tasks?
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During what sleep stage do rapid eye movements occur?
During what sleep stage do rapid eye movements occur?
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What kind of processing involves sensing, analysis, decision, and action?
What kind of processing involves sensing, analysis, decision, and action?
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What is the main difference between short-term and long-term memory?
What is the main difference between short-term and long-term memory?
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Which brain structure plays a key role in motor control and learning?
Which brain structure plays a key role in motor control and learning?
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What are the main types of EEG waves observed during different sleep stages?
What are the main types of EEG waves observed during different sleep stages?
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What is sensitization in the context of learning?
What is sensitization in the context of learning?
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What is the main function of the frontal lobe?
What is the main function of the frontal lobe?
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Which area of the brain is responsible for speech generation?
Which area of the brain is responsible for speech generation?
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What condition might arise from lesions in the right parietal lobe?
What condition might arise from lesions in the right parietal lobe?
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What is the primary role of the temporal lobe?
What is the primary role of the temporal lobe?
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Which structure is divided into left and right hemispheres and facilitates interhemispheric transfer of information?
Which structure is divided into left and right hemispheres and facilitates interhemispheric transfer of information?
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What can result from damage to the Wernicke's area?
What can result from damage to the Wernicke's area?
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Which lobe is primarily responsible for visual perception?
Which lobe is primarily responsible for visual perception?
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What is a potential consequence of a bilateral temporal lobe lesion?
What is a potential consequence of a bilateral temporal lobe lesion?
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What role does the nucleus accumbens play in the brain?
What role does the nucleus accumbens play in the brain?
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What effect does the brain's electrical activity have on memory and learning?
What effect does the brain's electrical activity have on memory and learning?
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What type of visual cones is responsible for detecting blue light?
What type of visual cones is responsible for detecting blue light?
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Which layer of the primary visual cortex is known as Broadmann’s area 17?
Which layer of the primary visual cortex is known as Broadmann’s area 17?
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What principle explains the mapping of sound frequencies along the basilar membrane?
What principle explains the mapping of sound frequencies along the basilar membrane?
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Which theory of color vision suggests that color perception is based on three types of cones?
Which theory of color vision suggests that color perception is based on three types of cones?
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Which component of the ear is responsible for detecting sound through hair cells?
Which component of the ear is responsible for detecting sound through hair cells?
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What auditory processing mechanism helps determine the direction of a sound?
What auditory processing mechanism helps determine the direction of a sound?
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Which part of the visual pathway is directly connected to the primary visual cortex?
Which part of the visual pathway is directly connected to the primary visual cortex?
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What process occurs when light causes hyperpolarization in retinal cells?
What process occurs when light causes hyperpolarization in retinal cells?
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Study Notes
The Special Sense
- The visual system uses the eye for processing light and visual information.
- The auditory and vestibular systems use the ear for processing sound and maintaining balance.
- The chemical senses are based on the sense of taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction).
Eye Structures
- Similarity to automatic camera: The eye shares similar functions with automatic cameras, such as automatic focus control and automatic exposure control in the pupil and iris.
- Superior to automatic camera: The eye surpasses automatic cameras with features like tracking moving objects and automatic cleaning mechanisms provided by the conjunctiva and sclera.
- Retina: The retina acts as the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye, processing visual information.
- Phototransduction: This is the process of converting light energy into electrical signals in the retina.
- Dark Current, light-induced hyperpolarization: When light hits the retina, it hyperpolarizes the photoreceptor cells, which have a continuous inward "dark current" in the absence of light.
How do we recognize colors?
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3 types of opsins: We recognize color through three types of cones, which are sensitive to different wavelengths of light:
- Blue cones (S) - 430nm
- Green cones (M) - 530nm
- Red cones (L) - 560nm
Color Vision Theories
- Trichromatic theory: This theory suggests that our color vision is based on the activity of three types of cones, each sensitive to a different primary color.
- Opponent process theory: This theory posits that color vision is based on opposing pairs of colors (like red-green and blue-yellow).
Visual Pathways
- Retina (망막): The initial processing of visual information occurs in the retina.
- Retinofugal projection: The retinal ganglion cells project to the brain via this pathway.
- Thalamus (시상): The thalamus relays visual information from the retina to the cerebral cortex; particularly to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN).
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Primary Visual Cortex (일차시각피질, V1): The primary visual cortex receives and processes visual information from the thalamus.
- Striate Cortex: Another name for the primary visual cortex.
- Broadmann’s area 17: This area encompasses the primary visual cortex.
- Visual association cortex (시각연합피질): This cortex further processes and interprets visual information, including recognition and spatial awareness.
- Scotoma: This refers to a partial loss of vision.
- Bitemporal hemianopsia: This is a loss of peripheral vision in both temporal fields.
- Homonymous hemianopsia: Loss of vision in the same visual field of both eyes.
- Homonymous quatraanopsia: Loss of vision in a quadrant of the visual field in both eyes.
- Other pathways: Information from the retina can also be sent to the superior colliculus, involved in eye movements and visual reflexes.
The Ear
- External Ear: Captures and directs sound waves.
- Middle Ear: Amplifies and transmits sound waves.
- Inner Ear: Converts sound vibrations into electrical signals for the brain to interpret.
Organ of Corti
- The organ of Corti is located within the cochlea of the inner ear and houses the sensory receptors for hearing.
How do we distinguish sounds?
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Determination of Sound Frequency:
- "Place" principle (Tonotopy) - Different frequencies of sound cause vibrations at different locations along the basilar membrane.
- "Frequency" (or "volley) principle (Phase locking) - Nerve impulses are timed with the peaks of incoming sound waves.
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Determination of Loudness: Louder sounds result in:
- Faster firing rates of neurons.
- Activation of more hair cells.
- Activation of high-threshold hair cells, which require a greater intensity of sound for activation.
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Discrimination of Sound Direction:
- Interaural time delay: The difference in arrival time of a sound at both ears helps us locate the sound source.
- Interaural intensity difference: The difference in intensity of sound at both ears is another clue for sound localization. "Sonic shadow" where the head blocks sound waves on one side.
Central Auditory Pathways
- Auditory Pathway: The auditory pathway is a bilateral pathway, meaning that information from both ears is sent to both hemispheres of the brain.
- Collateral fibers: The auditory tracts project to the reticular activating system, which is involved in arousal and attention.
- Spatial representations of sound: The cochlear nuclei, inferior colliculi, primary auditory cortex, and auditory association areas all have spatial representations of sound frequencies.
The Vestibular Apparatus (전정기관)
- Vestibular Apparatus: The vestibular apparatus is responsible for balance and orientation in space.
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Otolith organ: Composed of two structures:
- Utricle - Detects linear acceleration in the horizontal plane.
- Saccule - Detects linear acceleration in the vertical plane.
- Semicircular canals: Detect angular acceleration (rotation) in three planes of motion
Vestibular Transduction in the Otolith Organ
- Macula: A small sensory organ (greater than 2 mm in diameter) within the utricle and saccule.
- Patterns of hair cell activation: The patterns of hair cell activation within the macula inform the brain of the head's orientation.
Functions of the Semicircular canals and vestibuli
- Angular Acceleration: The semicircular canals detect rotational movements of the head.
- Linear Acceleration: The utricle and saccule detect linear movements of the head.
The Special Senses: Taste (Gustation) and Smell (Olfaction)
Taste (Gustation) (미각)
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Taste Receptors:
- Primary Tastes: Fundamental tastes: salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami.
- Taste buds (미뢰, 맛봉우리): Each one contains 50-150 receptor cells.
- Constantly recycled: Taste bud cells are constantly replaced, with an average lifespan of about 2 weeks.
Pathways of Taste (맛감각 전달경로)
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Primary gustatory axons: These axons project from taste receptors to the brain via cranial nerves:
- Facial nerve (VII) - Anterior 2/3rds of the tongue
- Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) - Posterior 1/3rd of the tongue
- Vagus nerve (X) - Taste buds in the pharynx
- Pons; gustatory nucleus: The gustatory nucleus in the pons receives taste information from the cranial nerves.
- Thalamus; Ventral posterior medial nucleus: The taste information is relayed from the pons to the thalamus
- Cerebral cortex; Brodmann’s area 36 and the insula-operculum regions: The thalamus sends taste information to the cerebral cortex for conscious perception.
Olfaction (후각)
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Olfactory Receptors:
- Olfactory Sensory Neuron: These cells have a lifespan of approximately 2 months; they are constantly replaced.
- Quick adaptation: The olfactory system adapts quickly to odors.
Generation of olfactory receptor potential (후각수용기압 발생)
- High concentration of Cl-: Olfactory receptors have a high concentration of chloride ions (Cl-) inside the cells, which is crucial for generating the receptor potential.
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Olfactory receptor proteins:
- Over 1000 types of receptor genes in rats: This is the largest gene family known. Humans have ~350 receptor genes.
- Single receptor type per cell: Each olfactory receptor cell seems to express only one type of olfactory receptor gene.
- Temporal coding: The timing of nerve impulses can contribute to odor perception.
- Population coding: Different odors activate distinct combinations of receptor cells.
- Broad tuning of single olfactory receptor cells: Individual olfactory receptor cells may respond to multiple odors but with different sensitivities.
Central pathways for olfaction (후각중추경로):
- New pathway: The new pathway is responsible for conscious perception of smell.
- Old pathway: This pathway is involved in olfactory reflexes, like salivation and aversion to toxic foods.
Higher Functions of the Brain
Cerebral Cortex (대뇌피질)
- Size and Structure: The cerebral cortex has a volume of about 600 cm3 and a surface area of approximately 2500 cm2. Due to its highly convoluted and folded structure, it boasts a large surface area packed into a relatively small volume of space.
- Dominant Hemisphere: One hemisphere of the brain (usually the left side) is classified as dominant, which often plays a key role in language processing.
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Sulcus: The cerebral cortex is marked by sulci (grooves) and gyri (ridges).
- Central sulcus: Separates frontal lobe from parietal lobe.
- Lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure): Separates frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobe.
- Parieto-occipital sulcus: Separates parietal lobe from occipital lobe.
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Lobes: Major divisions of the cerebral cortex, each having distinct functions:
- Frontal lobe: Responsible for higher-order cognitive functions like planning, decision-making, language, and motor control.
- Parietal lobe: Involved in sensory processing, spatial awareness, and motor control.
- Temporal lobe: Processes auditory information, memory, and language.
- Occipital lobe: Processes visual information.
- Insula: A small lobe of the brain located deep within the lateral sulcus.
Corpus callosum (뇌량)
- Connecting hemispheres: The corpus callosum is a thick bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them.
Limbic lobe (변연계)
- Emotional processing: This system is responsible for processing emotions, memory, and motivation.
- Hippocampal formation (해마): A key structure in the limbic system, crucial for memory formation.
Archicortex, Paleocortex, Neocortex
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Phylogenetically based classification: The cerebral cortex can be categorized based on its evolutionary development:
- Archicortex: The oldest part of the cerebral cortex; encompasses the hippocampal formation, with three layers and represents about 10% of the human cortex.
- Paleocortex: The next oldest part of the cortex, with 3-5 layers.
- Mesocortex: The limbic system, with 3-6 layers.
- Neocortex: The most recently evolved part of the cortex, with 6 layers and the largest part of the human cerebral cortex.
The Neocortex
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Neuronal cell types: The neocortex is comprised of different types of nerve cells:
- Pyramidal cells: The primary output neurons in the neocortex, responsible for sending information to other parts of the brain.
- Stellate cells (granule cells): Interneurons involved in processing information within the neocortex.
- Excitatory or Inhibitory: These neurons can be either excitatory (enhancing activity) or inhibitory (reducing activity) in the neocortex.
- Cytoarchitecture of Cortical Layers: The neocortex is organized into six distinct layers, each with a different cellular composition and function.
- Afferent (Input) and Efferent (Output) Fibers: The neocortex receives input fibers from other parts of the brain and sends output fibers to other areas.
- Regional Variations: Different regions of the neocortex have unique structures and functions, as reflected in the different thicknesses of the six layers and the neuron types.
Brodmann’s Area
- This is based on a system of cytoarchitectonic mapping, which identifies different areas of the cerebral cortex based on their cellular structure and function.
- Primary Motor Cortex: This area in the frontal lobe is responsible for controlling voluntary movements. It contains the Betz cells, which are large pyramidal neurons in the cortex.
- Primary Sensory Cortex: Located in the parietal lobe, this area receives sensory information from the body.
- Striate Cortex: This is synonymous with the primary visual cortex (V1).
Cerebral Cortex: Lobes
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Frontal Lobe (전두엽):
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Motor Area:
- Motor Cortex: The area within the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movements.
- Premotor Cortex: Plans and sequences movements.
- Supplementary Motor Area: Involved in planning and coordinating complex movements.
- Cingulate Motor Cortex: Contributes to motor control and emotional aspects of movement.
- Frontal Eye Field: Controls voluntary eye movements.
- Planning and Executing: The frontal lobe plays a key role in planning and executing complex behaviors.
- Broca’s area: Found in the dominant hemisphere; responsible for language production. Motor Aphasia: Damage to Broca's area leads to difficulty in speaking fluently.
- Orbitofrontal lobe: Processes olfactory information.
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Anterior prefrontal cortex: Controls personality, emotional regulation, and social behavior. Damages to this area can lead to:
- Attention deficit: Difficulty paying attention.
- Problem-solving difficulties: Reduced ability to solve problems.
- Lack of sociality: Deficits in social interaction and understanding.
- Impulsive behavior: Acting without considering consequences.
- Motivation and emotional damage: Loss of motivation and emotional regulation.
- Frontal Lobectomy: Surgical removal of part or all of the frontal lobe, sometimes used to treat severe epilepsy.
- Phineas Gage's Iron Path: Famous case study where a metal rod pierced Gage's skull, damaging his frontal lobe; significant changes in Gage's personality and behavior followed.
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Motor Area:
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Parietal Lobe (두정엽):
- Primary Sensory Cortex: Receives sensory information from the body, including touch, temperature, pain, and pressure.
- Body Awareness: The parietal lobe helps with understanding the body's position in space and its relationship to the environment.
- Parietal Association Cortex: Processes sensory information further, making sense of the world around us.
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Gerstmann’s syndrome: Damage to the left (dominant) parietal lobe can lead to a constellation of symptoms:
- Dysgraphia: Difficulty in writing.
- Dyscalculia: Difficulty with math.
- Finger agnosia: Difficulty identifying individual fingers.
- Left-right disorientation: Confusion about left and right.
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Neglect Syndrome: Damage to the right parietal lobe can result in neglect of the left side of the body and environment:
- Ignoring Left Side of the World: Individuals with neglect syndrome may fail to notice things on the left side of their body or the environment, even though they can visually perceive them. They might eat only food on the right side of their plate, dress only the right side of their body, or shave only the right side of their face.
- Problem of Attention: Neglect syndrome is a problem of attention, not blindness.
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Occipital Lobe (후두엽):
- Visual Processing: The occipital lobe is responsible for processing visual information.
- V1, V2, and V3: Subregions of the occipital lobe that process visual information in a hierarchical fashion.
- Connection to the Frontal Eye Field: The occipital lobe interacts with the frontal eye field to control eye movements based on visual input.
- Projections to the Midbrain: The occipital lobe also sends projections to the midbrain, which controls motor functions like eye movements.
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Temporal Lobe (측두엽):
- Auditory and Equilibrium Information: The temporal lobe processes sounds from the auditory pathway and receives information from the vestibular system, which controls balance.
- High-Dimensional Visual Information Processing: The temporal lobe participates in the interpretation and understanding of complex scenes, including facial recognition.
- The Infratemporal Cortex: Specialized for recognizing faces.
- Wernicke's area: Located in the dominant hemisphere, plays a crucial role in language comprehension. Sensory Aphasia: Damage to Wernicke's area can lead to difficulty understanding spoken language.
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Klüver-Bucy syndrome: This syndrome results from bilateral lesions in the temporal lobe, resulting in behavioral changes:
- Psychic blindness: Difficulty in recognizing objects or scenes.
- Hyperorality: Increased tendency to put objects in the mouth.
- Hypersexuality: Increased sexual drive.
Cerebral Dominance and Language
- Cerebral Dominance: One hemisphere of the brain (typically the left for most right-handed individuals) is specialized for language processing and other higher functions.
- Dominant Hemisphere: The hemisphere specialized for language processing.
- Aphasia: A disorder of language, affecting either language production or comprehension.
Cerebral Dominance and Language
- Cerebral Dominance: One hemisphere of the brain is usually dominant for language processing.
- Dominant Hemisphere: This is the hemisphere that is specialized for language processing (often the left hemisphere).
- Aphasia: A disorder of language, affecting either language production or comprehension.
- Wernicke's Area: Responsible for language comprehension.
- Broca's Area: Responsible for language production.
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Aphasia Types:
- Receptive Aphasia: Difficulty understanding language.
- Expressive Aphasia: Difficulty producing language.
- Sensory Aphasia: Another name for receptive aphasia.
- Motor Aphasia: Another name for expressive aphasia.
- Fluent Aphasia: The person can still speak fluently, but their speech may be incoherent or nonsensical.
- Non-fluent Aphasia: Difficulty speaking fluently, but their speech may be understandable.
Corpus Callosum (뇌량)
- Interhemispheric Communication: The corpus callosum serves as the main pathway for information transfer between the two hemispheres of the brain.
- Tests in Patients with Transected Corpus Callosum: Studies show that patients with a severed corpus callosum exhibit altered communication between hemispheres, which can lead to interesting behavioral observations.
- Split Brain: A term used to describe individuals with a surgically severed corpus callosum. Behavioral experiments with split-brain patients have provided valuable insights into brain lateralization.
Emotion
- Limbic System: The limbic system is critically involved in emotions, memory, and motivation.
- Papez Circuit: A neural circuit within the limbic system that plays a role in learning and memory.
Interoceptive Awareness (내수용 인식)
- Unconscious Emotional Brain Activity: The brain can process emotions unknowingly.
- Masking Stimuli: Research using masked stimuli (presented briefly and quickly) demonstrates that emotional responses can occur even when individuals are unaware of the stimuli. This showcases the unconscious processing capabilities of the brain, especially in the area of emotions.
Motivation
- Nucleus Accumbens: A brain region within the limbic system associated with the experience of pleasure and reward.
- Ventral Tegmentum Area (VTA): A midbrain area that plays a role in producing dopamine.
- Dopamine: A neurotransmitter that acts as a "reward currency" in the brain, contributing to the motivating effects of both pleasurable and rewarding experiences.
Decision Making (의사결정)
- BCD: Decision-making involves a complex interplay between Bias, **Reason,**Emotion, and Memory, shaping the choices we make.
How to Move a Muscle?
- Basal Ganglia (기저핵): A set of brain structures responsible for planning and executing movements, particularly automatic and habitual actions.
- Cerebellum (소뇌): Another key player in movement control, crucial for coordination, timing, and motor learning.
Voluntary Actions vs. Object-Oriented Actions
- Voluntary Actions: These are actions that we consciously choose to perform.
- Object-Oriented Actions (Stimulus Driven Actions): These are actions that are triggered by external stimuli. The basal ganglia and cerebellum play distinct roles in both types of actions.
Perceptual and Semantic Processing in Cognitive Robots
- Cognitive Robots: Robots designed to mimic human-like cognitive abilities, including perception, reasoning, and decision-making.
- Sensing >> Analysis >> Decision >> Action: Cognitive robots use a similar processing cycle to humans, starting with sensing information from the environment, analyzing it, making decisions based on that analysis, and then executing actions.
Roles of Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum in Learning and Motor Control
- Basal Ganglia and Motor Learning: The basal ganglia contribute to learning and refining motor skills.
- Cerebellum and Motor Coordination: The cerebellum plays a crucial role in coordinating movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor control.
Thinking, Fast and Slow
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Two Systems of Thinking: The book "Thinking, Fast and Slow" by Daniel Kahneman proposes two systems of thinking:
- System 1: Automatic and Fast: This system operates quickly and instinctively, based on intuition and heuristics.
- System 2: Reflective and Slow: This system is more deliberate and analytical, requiring conscious thought and effort.
Medical Agent X's Cognitive Cycle
- This refers to a cognitive architecture for medical robots (agents) that was introduced in a 2014 paper, emphasizing the different stages involved in information processing and decision-making, including perception, reasoning, and planning.
Electrical Activity of the Cerebral Cortex
- EEG (Electroencephalogram): A technique for recording electrical brain activity using electrodes placed on the scalp.
- Synaptic Potentials: The EEG signal largely arises from the synchronized activity of pyramidal neurons and their synaptic potentials.
- Field Potential: The EEG measures the summed electrical activity of a large population of neurons.
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EEG Frequency: Different brainwave frequencies are associated with different states of consciousness and brain activity:
- Alpha (8-12 Hz): Relaxed, awake state.
- Beta (13-30 Hz): Active, engaged state.
- Theta (3-7 Hz): Drowsiness or sleep.
- Delta (0.5-2 Hz): Deep sleep.
Judgement of Brain Death
- EEG as a Diagnostic Tool: The EEG can be used to assess brain death, a state of complete and irreversible loss of brain function.
Epilepsy
- Grand Mal Seizure: A type of seizure characterized by loss of consciousness, muscle spasms, and convulsions.
- Petit Mal Seizure: A type of seizure characterized by brief lapses of consciousness without convulsions.
Stages of Sleep
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EEG Wave Patterns: The EEG can be used to distinguish different stages of sleep:
- Stage 1: Beta waves
- Stage 2: Alpha waves
- Stage 3: Theta waves
- Stage 4: Delta waves
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REM and Non-REM Sleep:
- Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep: Characterized by rapid eye movements, dreaming, and muscle paralysis - sometimes called "paradoxical sleep" because it has brain activity similar to wakefulness but paralyzed muscles.
- Non-REM Sleep: Consists of the other stages of sleep, with lower brain activity and less vivid dreams.
Brain Imaging Techniques
- X-ray: Uses electromagnetic radiation to create images of internal structures.
- CT (Computerized Tomography): A technique that uses X-ray beams to create cross-sectional images of the brain.
- PET (Positron Emission Tomography): A technique that uses radioactive tracers to detect and map brain activity.
- MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the brain.
Learning and Memory
- Habituation (습관화): A decrease in a behavioral response to a repeated stimulus.
- Sensitization: An increase in a behavioral response to a stimulus following a strong or noxious stimulus.
- Associative Conditioning: Learning connections between stimuli or between a stimulus and behavior.
Learning and Memory
- Habituation: A decrease in a response to a repeated stimulus.
- Sensitization: An increase in a response to a stimulus following a strong or noxious stimulus. This is associated with enhanced synaptic transmission through presynaptic facilitation: an increase in the amount of neurotransmitter released by the presynaptic neuron.
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Associative Conditioning: Learning connections between stimuli or between a stimulus and behavior.
- Classical Conditioning: Learning to associate a neutral stimulus with a naturally occurring response.
- Operant Conditioning: Learning to associate a behavior with a consequence.
Learning and Memory
- Associative Conditioning (연합조건화): Learning to associate two stimuli or a stimulus and behavior.
Learning and Memory
- Mechanism of Learning: Changes in the strength of synapses, the connections between neurons.
- Synaptic Plasticity: The ability of synapses to change in strength, contributing to learning and memory.
Learning and Memory
- Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A persistent increase in synaptic strength that occurs after high-frequency stimulation, leading to long-term memory. It requires tetanus stimulation, a rapid series of electrical stimuli.
- Long-Term Depression (LTD): A persistent decrease in synaptic strength that occurs after low-frequency stimulation, potentially contributing to weakening or forgetting of memories.
Learning and Memory
- Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A strengthening of the synaptic connection between neurons, contributing to the establishment of memories.
- Long-Term Depression (LTD): A weakening of the synaptic connection between neurons, potentially contributing to forgetting or the suppression of unwanted memories.
Learning and Memory
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Memory Processing: Memory involves a series of stages:
- Encoding: The initial processing of information to be stored.
- Storage: Holding information in the brain over time.
- Consolidation: The process of stabilizing memories after they have been encoded.
- Retrieval: Bringing memories back to consciousness.
- Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage of information for a short period of time (seconds to minutes).
- Long-Term Memory: The relatively permanent storage of information.
- Amnesia: A memory disorder that can affect either short-term or long-term memory.
Learning and Memory
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Long-Term Memory:
- Declarative Memory (Knowing what): Memories that can be consciously recalled, including facts, events, and personal experiences.
- Procedural Memory (Knowing how): Memories for skills and procedures, such as riding a bike or playing a musical instrument.
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Memory Types:
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Implicit (Non-declarative) Memories: Unconscious memories that cannot be explicitly recalled.
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Explicit (Declarative) Memories: Conscious memories that can be recalled.
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Implicit Memory Types:
- Priming: A form of learning where exposure to a stimulus influences subsequent responses.
- Procedural Memory: Remembering how to perform a task, like tying shoes or writing a letter.
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Explicit Memory Types:
- Conditioned Memories: Memories formed through classical or operant conditioning.
- Semantic Memories: General knowledge about the world (facts, concepts).
- Episodic Memories: Personal memories of specific events.
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