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Questions and Answers
Which psychological approach emphasizes the role of unconscious ideas originating from childhood?
What concept is primarily associated with Wilhelm Wundt's approach to psychology?
Which perspective in psychology is mainly concerned with the biological relationship between the brain and behavior?
What does Gestalt psychology primarily focus on in relation to perception?
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Which of the following philosophies views human capacity for self-fulfillment and existential choice as central themes?
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Aristotle's view of human behavior can best be described as being subject to what?
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Which psychological approach was focused on the conscious choice and self-direction of individuals?
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What did Socrates contribute to the understanding of human thought and behavior?
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What is one primary focus of counseling psychology?
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Which psychologists assist students facing learning difficulties?
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What distinguishes educational psychologists from school psychologists?
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What is a focus area for developmental psychologists?
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Which branch of psychology is primarily concerned with social influences on thoughts and feelings?
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What aspect of personality psychology do practitioners focus on?
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What is the main goal of applied research in psychology?
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Which type of psychologist would study the relationship between stimuli and responses?
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What is the primary concern of human factors psychologists?
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What defines pure research in psychology?
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What is the primary function of acetylcholine (ACh)?
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Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with pleasure and voluntary movement?
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What condition is associated with low levels of dopamine?
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What is the role of norepinephrine in the body?
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Which neurotransmitter helps calm anxiety reactions?
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Which of the following deficiencies is closely associated with serotonin?
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What distinguishes white matter in the spinal cord?
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Which function is primarily associated with the hippocampus?
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What is a symptom of low GABA levels?
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What is one role of endorphins in the body?
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What is the primary focus of functionalism in psychology?
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Which psychological perspective is mainly concerned with observable behaviors rather than mental processes?
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What does a dependent variable represent in an experimental study?
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Which method of research involves investigating a large sample's attitudes or behaviors through questions?
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What is the term for the agreement participants must give before joining a research study?
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What principle explains that a neuron either fires or it does not when stimulated?
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Which of the following best describes a stratified sample?
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What effect does polarization have on a neuron?
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Which component of the neuron is responsible for receiving incoming messages?
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What is the main purpose of the control group in an experiment?
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What type of sampling allows all participants an equal chance of being selected?
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Which process allows positively charged ions to enter a neuron during depolarization?
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What is the role of glial cells in the nervous system?
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Which principle of critical thinking emphasizes the need for evidence?
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Which hormone is primarily secreted by the pineal gland?
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What is the function of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system?
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Which of the following hormones is associated with milk production?
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What is the primary role of kinesthetic sense in the body?
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Which theory suggests that color vision is based on three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue?
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What does the gate theory of pain suggest?
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What is considered the absolute threshold in sensory perception?
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Which statement regarding sleep cycles is correct?
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What is a characteristic feature of sensorineural deafness?
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What is the role of the hypothalamus in the human body?
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Which condition is characterized by difficulty falling asleep and is often exacerbated by stress?
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In perception, what does the term 'figure-ground' refer to?
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What defines subliminal stimulation?
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Study Notes
Psychology Definition and Scope
- The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
- Psyche - soul; Logos - study
- Behavioral science, objective, fact-based, systematic, and empirical
- Factors that affect behavior: heredity and others
- Theories: used to propose reasons, derive explanations, and predict behavior
Fields of Psychology
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Clinical psychology: helps people with disorders adjust to life
- Example issues: anxiety, depression
- School psychology: assists students with problems hindering learning
- Educational psychology: studies course planning and instructional methods.
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Developmental psychology: studies changes throughout the lifespan
- Includes: physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes
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Personality psychology: identifies and measures human traits and their affect on behavior and thought
- Examples: gender roles, aggression, anxiety
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Social psychology: studies how social situations affect thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals
- Focuses on social influences
- Environmental psychology: studies how humans and the environment influence each other
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Human factors psychology: makes technical systems and technology more user-friendly
- Relationship between stimuli and responses
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Experimental psychology: focuses on basic processes
- Examples: nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory
Historical Foundations of Psychology
- Aristotle: human behavior is subject to rules and laws
- Democritus: external stimulation influences behavior
- Socrates: introspection (careful examination of one's thoughts and emotions)
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Wilhelm Wundt: structuralism
- Breaking conscious experience into objective sensations and subjective feelings
- Belief: the mind functions by combining objective and subjective elements of experience
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William James: functionalism
- Focuses on how experience helps us function better in our environment
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John Watson: behaviorism
- Studies observable behavior (can be measured)
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Gestalt psychology:
- Focuses on how wholes give meaning to parts
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Sigmund Freud: psychoanalysis
- Emphasizes unconscious ideas that stem from childhood
Perspectives in Psychology
- Biological: how the brain, hormones, etc., relate to behavior and mental processes
- Cognitive: attempts to understand human nature and the mind
- Humanistic-Existential: focuses on human capacity for fulfillment and free will
- Psychodynamic: less emphasis on unconscious processes and more on conscious choice and self-direction
Perspectives on Learning
-
Sociocultural: how cultural context affects individuals
- Examples: ethnicity, gender
The Scientific Method
- Research question: the question a study seeks to answer
- Hypothesis: a statement about behavior that is tested through research
- Test the hypothesis: using controlled methods
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Results:
- Correlation: Association or relationship among variables (ex: grades and study habits)
- Selection factor: source of bias in research findings where participants choose for themselves
Samples and Populations
- Sample: a segment of a population
- Random sample: equal chance for everyone in a population
- Stratified sample: subgroups are represented proportionally
- Volunteer bias: people who volunteer systematically differ from those who don't
Methods of Research
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Methods of Observation:
- Case study: collects information about individuals and small groups
- Survey: a large sample answers questions about attitudes or behaviors
- Naturalistic observation: observing people in their natural environment
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Correlation:
- Correlational method: determines if observed behavior is related to another
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Experimental method:
- Independent variable: manipulated variable
- Dependent variable: the effect or outcome
- Experimental groups: groups that receive the treatment
- Control group: groups that remain constant or receive no treatment
Ethics in Psychological Research
- Informed consent: participant's agreement after knowing what the research is about
- Debriefing: explaining the purposes of a completed procedure post-experiment
Critical Thinking - Examining Evidence with Skepticism
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Principles of critical thinking:
- Be skeptical: keep an open mind
- Insist on evidence: demand supporting data
- Examine definitions of terms: consider varying definitions
- Examine assumptions or premises of arguments: consider the context or underlying assumptions
- Be cautious in drawing conclusions: evidence can change over time
- Be skeptical of anecdotes: anecdotes are subjective
- Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence: look for other explanations
- Do not oversimplify: recognize complexity
- Do not overgeneralize: avoid making broad conclusions
- Apply critical thinking in all areas of life: use these skills in everyday situations
Biology and Psychology
-
Neuron: specialized cell in nervous system that conducts impulses
- Glial cells: removes dead neurons and waste products in the nervous system
Neuron Structure
- Dendrites: root-like part that receives messages from other neurons
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Axon: carries messages from dendrites to the spinal cord and brain
- Axon terminals/terminal buttons: bulb-shaped structures at the end of axons
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Myelin: insulates the axon, minimizing leakage of electrical current
- Myelination: a maturation process that allows walking and crawling
Neuron Types
- Afferent neurons (sensory neurons): transmits messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain
- Efferent neurons (motor neurons): transmits messages from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands
Neural Impulses
- Electrochemical discharge: the way a nerve cell or neuron communicates
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Polarization: readies a neuron for firing, creates a negative charge inside compared to outside the cell
- Resting potential: about -70 millivolts
- Depolarization: increased permeability of the cell membrane allows positively charged ions to enter
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All-or-none principle: a neuron fires at full strength or it doesn't
- Frequency of firing increases with stronger stimulation
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Synapse: junction of axon terminal and dendrites/cell body of another neuron
- Synaptic cleft: fluid-filled gap between neurons
Neurotransmitters
- Chemicals released into the synapse that fit receptor sites on the dendrite of another neuron
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Acetylcholine (ACh): controls muscle contractions and is important for memory
- Involved in the hippocampus (memory formation)
- Lack of ACh causes paralysis
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Dopamine: important for pleasure, voluntary movement, learning, and memory
- Nicotine and other drugs increase dopamine levels
- Low dopamine: Parkinson's disease
- High dopamine: Schizophrenia
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Norepinephrine: excitatory to the heart and involved in arousal, learning, and memory
- Produced in the brain stem, can be both a hormone and neurotransmitter
- Excess or deficiency: mood disorders
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Serotonin: regulates emotional arousal and sleep
- Deficiencies: ED, alcoholism, depression, aggression, and insomnia
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Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA): helps calm anxiety reactions
- Low GABA: depression
- Inhibitory, not excitatory
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Endorphins: inhibitory neurotransmitters that act as morphine to block pain
- Increases competence and immune system function
Nervous System
- **Nerves: **bundles of axons from many neurons
Central Nervous System
- Brain and spinal cord; command center of the body
- **Spinal cord: **information superhighway, transmits sensory and motor messages to and from the brain
- Spinal reflexes: responses to stimuli that only require sensory and motor neurons
- Gray matter: non-myelinated neurons, important for spinal reflexes
- White matter: long, myelinated axons, carries messages to and from the brain
Brain
- No pain receptors
- Electroencephalograph (EEG): studies electrical waves in the brain
- Computerized axial tomography (CAT/CT scan): uses x-rays to visualize brain structures, revealing blood clots, tumors, etc.
The Nervous System
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Central Nervous System (CNS): Connects the brain and spinal cord.
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Hypothalamus: Controls basic drives, secretes hormones.
- Growth hormone: Influences growth.
- Oxytocin: Promotes pleasure, social bonding, and maternal behavior.
- Prolactin: Stimulates milk production.
- Vasopressin: Responsible for paternal behavior.
- Pineal gland: Secretes melatonin for regulating sleep-wake cycles.
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Thyroid gland: Produces thyroxin for metabolism.
- Hyperthyroidism: A condition characterized by rapid metabolism and weight loss.
- Hypothyroidism: A condition characterized by slow metabolism and weight gain.
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Adrenal gland: Secretes corticosteroids, affecting heartbeat, stress response, and muscle development.
- Epinephrine (adrenaline): A hormone released by the adrenal gland, responsible for the 'fight or flight' response.
- Testes and ovaries: Produce sex hormones (testosterone and estrogen), influencing primary and secondary sex characteristics.
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Hypothalamus: Controls basic drives, secretes hormones.
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Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary bodily functions.
- Sympathetic division: Activates during energy expenditure, such as fight or flight responses.
- Parasympathetic division: Activates during energy replenishment, such as relaxation and digestion.
The Endocrine System
- The body has two types of gland: those with ducts, which secrete directly, and those without ducts (endocrine), which release hormones into the bloodstream.
Evolution and Heredity
- Charles Darwin: Proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection, applied to human evolution from apes to humans.
- Evolutionary psychology: Emphasizes the role of adaptation and natural selection in shaping mental processes and behaviors.
- Heredity: The passing of traits from parents to offspring.
- Genetics: The study of genes and their role in behavior.
- Genes: Basic building blocks of heredity, responsible for specific traits.
- Environment: Influences behavior throughout life.
- Kinship studies: Compare traits and behaviors in biologically related and unrelated individuals.
- Adoption studies: Examine similarities in behavior between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents.
Subliminal Stimulation
- Sensory stimulation below a person's absolute threshold, often undetectable.
- Examples include visual stimuli flashed too briefly for conscious processing.
Difference Threshold
- The minimum difference between two stimuli required to detect a change.
- Weber's constant: A fraction representing the difference threshold for various sensory modalities (e.g., 1/60th for light, 1/333 for pitch).
- Just noticeable difference (JND): The minimum difference in stimuli a person can detect.
Signal Detection Theory
- Perception involves physical, biological, and psychological factors.
- Accounts for how individuals make decisions under conditions of uncertainty, considering both sensory information and internal biases.
Sensory Adaptation
- Decreasing sensitivity to unchanging stimuli.
- Sensitization (positive adaptation): Increasing sensitivity to weak stimuli (e.g., becoming more attuned to sounds in a dark cinema).
- Desensitization (negative adaptation): Decreasing sensitivity to constant stimuli (e.g., living in a noisy city reduces sensitivity to car noises).
Vision
- Visual acuity: The sharpness of vision, influenced by the eye's shape.
- Presbyopia: Difficulty focusing on nearby objects, commonly occurring in older age.
Theories of Color Vision
- Trichromatic theory: Cones in the eye are sensitive to red, green, and blue. Other colors are perceived through the simultaneous firing of these three cones.
- Opponent-process theory: Cones are sensitive to color pairs: red-green, blue-yellow, and brightness. One color in each pair inhibits the other.
Color Blindness
- Trichromats: Individuals with normal color vision, sensitive to all three primary colors.
- Monochromats: Individuals with total color blindness, only sensitive to shades of light and dark.
- Dichromats: Individuals with partial color blindness, unable to discriminate between two specific colors (e.g., red-green or blue-yellow).
Perceptual Organization
- The process of integrating visual information into meaningful wholes.
- Figure-ground perception: Distinguishing between a figure and its surrounding background.
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Gestalt rules for organization: Principles guiding perceptual organization.
- Proximity: Elements close together are perceived as a group.
- Similarity: Similar elements are perceived as a group.
- Continuity: Series of points or a broken line are perceived as continuous.
- Closure: Perceiving a complete whole despite gaps in sensory input.
- Common fate: Elements moving together are perceived as belonging together.
Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing
- Top-down processing: Using prior knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory input (e.g., recognizing a puzzle image before arranging the pieces).
- Bottom-up processing: Constructing a whole perception from individual sensory features (e.g., assembling a puzzle without prior knowledge of the final image).
Depth Perception
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Monocular cues: Depth perception achievable with one eye.
- Perspective: Converging lines suggest distance.
- Motion parallax: Nearby objects appear to move faster in relation to our motion.
- Clearness: Distant objects appear less clear.
- Relative size: Larger objects are perceived as closer.
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Binocular cues: Depth perception requiring both eyes.
- Retinal disparity: Difference in images projected onto each retina due to slightly differing angles.
- Convergence: Cross-eyed state when focusing on a single object, causing tension in the eyes.
Perceptual Constancies
- Consistent perception of objects despite changes in sensory input.
- Size constancy: Objects are perceived as their usual size despite varying distances.
- Color constancy: Objects are perceived as having their typical color despite variations in lighting.
- Brightness constancy: Objects are perceived as having their typical brightness despite variations in light levels.
- Shape constancy: Objects are perceived as maintaining their shape despite changes in perspective.
Hearing
- Pitch: Determined by the frequency of sound waves, measured in Hertz (Hz).
- Loudness: Determined by the amplitude of sound waves, measured in decibels (dB).
The Ear
- Outer ear: Funnels sound waves to the eardrum.
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Middle ear: Contains the eardrum and ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) that amplify sound.
- Oval window: Transmits vibrations from ossicles to the inner ear.
- Inner ear: Contains the cochlea.
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Cochlea: Fluid-filled, curled structure containing the basilar membrane.
- Organ of Corti: Located on the basilar membrane, contains hair cells that respond to vibrations.
Theories of Pitch Perception
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Frequency theory: For lower pitches, the frequency of neural impulses matches the frequency of sound waves.
- Volley principle: Groups of neurons take turns firing to represent frequencies above 1,000 Hz.
-
Place theory: Different pitches are perceived based on the specific location along the basilar membrane that vibrates in response.
- Higher pitches stimulate areas closer to the oval window.
Deafness
- Conductive deafness: Damage to the middle ear (e.g., eardrum or ossicles), hindering sound transmission.
- Sensorineural deafness: Inner ear damage (e.g., loss of hair cells) caused by loud noises, leading to hearing loss.
Skin Senses
- Touch and pressure: Sensory receptors respond to stimulation by touch.
- Active touching: Exploring the surface of objects through continuous hand movement, providing more detailed information.
Pain
-
Pain messages: Facilitated by the release of chemicals like:
- Prostaglandins
- Bradykinin
- P (pain)
- Phantom limb pain: Experiencing pain in a missing limb.
- Gate theory of pain: Nervous system can only process a limited amount of sensory input at a time. Stimulating a painful area can reduce pain perception by activating other sensory pathways.
Kinesthesis
- Sensory system informing about body movement and position.
- Sensory information originates from joints, muscles, and tendons and is relayed to the brain.
Vestibular Sense
- Provides information about balance and orientation in relation to gravity.
- Sensory receptors are located in the inner ear.
Consciousness
- Sensory awareness of the environment.
- Direct inner awareness: Knowing one's own thoughts, images, emotions, and memories.
- Waking state: Consciousness is directed outwards, focused on the external world.
- Selective attention: Focusing consciousness on a specific stimulus, important for self-control.
- Cocktail party effect: Ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment.
Levels of Consciousness
- Preconscious: Not currently in awareness but readily accessible.
- Unconscious: Not accessible to awareness under normal circumstances.
- Nonconscious: Bodily processes, occurring without conscious control.
- Repression: Unconsciously pushing unpleasant thoughts or memories out of awareness.
- Suppression: Consciously blocking thoughts from awareness.
Sleep
- Recommended sleep duration: 7-9 hours.
-
Circadian rhythm: Biological cycle that regulates sleep-wake patterns, aligning with the 24-hour day-night cycle.
- Light exposure activates proteins in the retina, signaling the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus.
- The pineal gland releases melatonin, regulating sleep patterns.
Stages of Sleep
- Waking state: Low amplitude, high frequency brain waves.
- Sleeping: High amplitude, low frequency brain waves.
-
NREM sleep: Stages 1-4, characterized by non-rapid eye movement.
- Stage 1: Theta waves; light sleep associated with slow, rolling eye movement.
- Stage 2: Spindles and K-complexes; medium amplitude brain waves.
- Stages 3 and 4: Slow delta waves; deep sleep.
REM Sleep
- Rapid eye movement sleep: A stage characterized by vivid dreams, difficult awakening, and physiological changes mirroring wakefulness.
- Paradoxical sleep: The brain is active, resembling a waking state, while the body is paralyzed.
- Each night consists of approximately 5 sleep cycles, each with a REM sleep period.
Functions of Sleep
- Rejuvenation.
- Stress recovery.
- Memory consolidation.
- Brain development, especially in infants.
Dreams
- Residue of the day: Dreams reflect experiences and concerns from daily life.
- Continuity hypothesis: Dreams often feature themes and content related to waking preoccupations.
- Expression of unconscious desires: Dreams may reveal hidden wishes and urges.
- Activation-synthesis model: Dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.
Sleep Disorders
- Insomnia: Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
- Narcolepsy: Sudden bouts of drowsiness and sleep, often accompanied by sleep paralysis and hallucinations.
- Sleep apnea: Repeated episodes of apnea (pauses in breathing) during sleep, commonly associated with obesity and anatomical deformities.
Hypnosis
- An altered state of consciousness characterized by increased suggestibility.
- Role theory: People may act as though they are hypnotized due to expectations and social roles.
- Response set theory: Expectations and beliefs play a significant role in responses to hypnotic suggestions.
Meditation
- A practice focusing on deep thoughts, often with spiritual connotations.
- Transcendental meditation: Repetitive use of a mantra.
- Mindfulness meditation: Focusing on the immediate moment, accepting thoughts and sensations without judgment.
Biofeedback
- A technique for learning to voluntarily control bodily functions, such as heart rate or body temperature.
Psychoactive Substances
- Substance use disorder: Loss of control over substance use, leading to negative consequences.
- Tolerance: Reduced effectiveness of a substance with repeated use, requiring higher doses for similar effects.
- Abstinence syndrome: Withdrawal symptoms experienced when reducing or stopping substance use.
Depressants
- Reduce activity in the nervous system.
-
Alcohol: Low doses can have a stimulating effect, while higher doses have depressant effects.
- Women metabolize alcohol slower than men due to lower levels of aldehyde dehydrogenase.
-
Opiates and Opioids: Bind to opioid receptors in the brain, reducing pain and producing euphoria.
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Opiates: Natural narcotics derived from the opium poppy (e.g., morphine, heroin, codeine).
- Heroin: A synthetic opiate with a rapid onset of effect, often misrepresented as a cure for morphine addiction.
- Opioids: Synthetic compounds with similar effects to opiates (e.g., Demerol).
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Opiates: Natural narcotics derived from the opium poppy (e.g., morphine, heroin, codeine).
- Barbiturates: Prescribed for anxiety and insomnia, causing sedation and relaxation.
Stimulants
- Increase activity in the nervous system.
-
Amphetamines: Used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy.
- Ritalin and Adderall: Common amphetamine medications.
-
Cocaine: A stimulant extracted from coca leaves.
- Produces feelings of euphoria, reduces hunger, deadens pain, and boosts self-confidence.
-
Nicotine: The stimulant found in tobacco.
- Increases the release of adrenaline and neurotransmitters like acetylcholine, GABA, endorphins, and dopamine.
- Depresses appetite.
- Hydrocarbons in cigarette smoke are linked to lung cancer.
Hallucinogens
- Affect perception and sensory experiences, often inducing hallucinations.
-
Marijuana: A psychoactive drug derived from Cannabis.
- May enhance perceptions, creativity, empathy, and self-insight.
- Can cause disorientation and impair motor coordination.
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