Group 1 Vocabulary: Great Chain, Simony, and Pluralism

Group 1 Vocabulary

Great Chain of Being

• This concept was originally conceived by Greek philosophers.
• Christian thinkers, such as Thomas Aquinas, popularized during the Renaissance.
• It represents life's hierarchical ranking, starting with God, followed by angels, humans, animals, plants, and rocks.
• It was popularized in medieval Europe from the 5th to 15th century.
• It shows a rise in Renaissance thought on politics, religion, and science.
• It justified hierarchies and divine rule.

Simony

• This involves corrupt Church officials, opposed notably by Martin Luther.
• It's the act of buying and selling church positions and sacred privileges.
• This was rampant during the Middle Ages, specifically from the 9th to 16th centuries.
• This occurred throughout Catholic Europe, including the Holy Roman Empire, France, and England.
• It led to the Church's corruption and ignited the Protestant Reformation.

Pluralism

• High-ranking church members practiced this and reformers like Martin Luther, criticized it.
• It refers to holding multiple church offices simultaneously, leading to neglect and corruption.
• This practice occurred during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, from the 14th to 16th centuries.
• It was observed within the Catholic Church, particularly in the Holy Roman Empire, France, and England.
• This practice allowed clergy to accumulate wealth and power, resulting in absenteeism.

Indulgence

• The Catholic Church issued these and Martin Luther criticized them.
• It is a reduction of punishment for sin, later monetized by the church.
• Indulgences became corrupt from the 15th to 16th centuries.
• This corruption occurred throughout Catholic Europe.
• It resulted in Martin Luther writing his 95 Theses, sparking the Protestant Reformation.

Martin Luther

• A German monk who became the main figure of the Protestant Reformation.
• Luther challenged the Catholic Church on corruption and monetization, most notably through his 95 Theses.
• His actions took place primarily in the 15th and 16th centuries.
• He was based in Germany.
• He led to the split between Catholicism and Protestantism.

95 Theses

• Written by Martin Luther.
• This document lists criticisms and complaints against the Catholic Church, specifically regarding the monetization of religion.
• Published in the 16th century, marking the beginning of the Protestant Revolution.
• Published in Germany.
• The publication sparked the Protestant Reformation.

Protestantism

• Started by Martin Luther.
• A branch of Christianity that broke away from Catholicism.
• It emphasizes faith over papal authority and elevates the Bible as the ultimate authority.
• This happened in the 16th century during the Protestant Reformation.
• Originating in Germany, it spread across Europe.
• Protestantism reshaped Europe and European religion, diminishing the Catholic Church's power.

Eucharist

• Practiced by Christians.
• It involves consuming bread and wine, symbolizing the Last Supper.
• Catholics believe the bread becomes Christ's body and blood, while Protestants interpret it differently.
• It started with Jesus in the 1st century.
• The first celebration was in Jerusalem.
• It symbolizing Christ's sacrifice.

John Calvin

• French theologian and pastor and a key figure in the Protestant Reformation.
• He developed Calvinism, which includes the idea of God predetermining who will be saved.
• He wrote "Institutes of the Christian Religion".
• He was active in the 16th century.
• Though born in France, his influence spread across Europe.
• He reshaped Reformed Christianity.

Henry VIII

• He was the King of England in the 16th century.
• He broke away from the Catholic Church, establishing the Church of England.
• Made himself head of the Church of England.
• He is best known for his six marriages.
• His actions led to the English Reformation.

Act of Supremacy

• King Henry VIII enacted this.
• This law declared the King of England as the Supreme Head of the Church of England.
• It was passed in the 16th century during the English Reformation.
• Passed in England.
• It gave the monarchy religious control.

Anglicanism

• Founded by King Henry VIII.
• Anglicanism is a branch of Christianity that separated from the Catholic Church.
• This occurred in 16th century.
• Established in England.
• It allowed for the English monarchy to control religion.

Council of Trent

• Pope Paul III convened the council.
• It was a meeting to reform the Catholic Church following the rise of Protestantism.
• The council reaffirmed Catholic beliefs, such as the Pope's authority and the significance of the Bible.
• It convened in the 16th century.
• The location was in Italy.
• The response to Protestantism aimed to strengthen the Church and disseminate new ideas.

Jesuits

• Founded by Ignatius of Loyola.
• The Jesuits spread Catholicism and education.
• Founded in the 16th century.
• Spread from France to worldwide locations.
• They countered Protestantism and expanded Catholicism globally.

Peace of Augsburg

• Agreement between Catholic and Protestant leaders in the Holy Roman Empire.
• Leaders could choose whether their land would be Catholic or Lutheran.
• This happened in the 16th century.
• The location was Germany.
• This helped end religious fighting in Germany.

Thirty Years War

• A conflict between Catholic and Protestant countries in Europe.
• This war became about power between countries.
• It occurred in the 17th century.
• Mostly in Germany, spreading through some of Europe.
• The Treaty of Westphalia, which changed how countries in Europe interacted, ended the war.

Group 2 Vocabulary

Indian Ocean Trade

• Many regions participated, including East Africa, Arabia, India, Southeast Asia, and China.
• This involved a global trade network spanning the Indian Ocean.
• It took place throughout the 1st millennium through the 16th century.
• Across the Indian Ocean, connecting many regions and nations.
• It linked cultures and allowed the exchange of goods, ideas, religions, and technology.

Silk Road

• Traders from China, India, Persia, and Rome were involved.
• These were trade routes that linked East Asia with the Mediterranean.
• The goods traded included silk, spices, and metals.
• This trade occurred from the 2nd century BCE to the 15th century.
• It spanned from China to the Mediterranean.
• It helped with the exchange of goods, technology, ideas, and religion.

Conquistador

• Spanish and Portuguese explorers.
• These explorers conquered large parts of the Americas.
• They were active in the 16th century during the Age of Exploration.
• They were active in South and Central America.
• They led to Spanish Empire taking control in the Americas.

Hernan Cortes

• A Spanish conquistador.
• He led the conquest of the Aztec Empire for Spain.
• He was active in the 16th century.
• This took place in Mexico.
• This conquest ended the Aztec Empire and initiated Spanish dominance in the Americas.

Aztecs

• Ruled by Montezuma II when Cortes arrived.
• A highly advanced Mesoamerican civilization known for its architecture, art, and human sacrifice.
• Flourished during the 14th to 16th centuries.
• They were located in modern-day Mexico.
• Developing Mesoamerican culture, they are a key part of the history of the Americas.

Encomienda

• Involved Spanish colonizers and the Spanish crown.
• A system where Spanish settlers were granted land and the right to force Native Americans to work for them.
• This was during 16th century.
• Active in Spanish colonies in the Americas.
• This exploited Indigenous People, which made Spain wealthy.

Ecological Imperialism

• European colonizers
• This included new plants, animals, and diseases into the Americas.
• During the 16th century.
• Involved the Americas and other colonized regions.
• It changed ecosystems, disrupting local economies, and causing mass death.

Chattel slavery

• European traders and African kingdoms
• A system where slaves were considered property.
• Began in the 16th century and lasted until the 19th.
• Primarily in the Americas, as well as in Europe and Africa.

Middle Passage

• Involved African slaves, European traders, and ship captains.
• A slave trade route between the Americas and Africa.
• Active in the 16th - 19th century.
• Across the Atlantic Ocean, from Americas to Africa.
• The key part of the slave trade has had a Lasting impact on the cultures and economy of America

Social Hierarchy

• Different classes, such as nobles, clergies, and peasants.
• A system where people are ranked based on social status or wealth.
• Seen in many societies during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
• Occurred mainly in Europe, but also globally.
• It led to inequalities, causing economic, political, and social struggles.

Caste System

• Mainly from the Hindu society
• A social class system that divides people into groups based on birth and occupation.
• Was solidified in the Middle Ages, but has been in place since ancient times.
• Primarily in India, spread globally.
• It has shaped social life and limiting people's opportunities.

Three Estates

• Involved French clergies, nobles, and commoners.
• A social system in France where society is divided into three classes.
• It was as old as the 14th century and flatlined in the 18th century.
• the location was France.
• The Estates system reflect the inequalities of French society.

Absolutism

• Practiced by monarchies like Louis XIV of France.
• It's a form of government where the monarch has absolute power over the state and its people.
• It was common during the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Seen in France, Russia, and Spain.
• This centralized power led to control over all aspects of life.

Louis XIV

• King of France
• An absolute monarch who ruled France for 70 years.
• Considered the most powerful European country of his time.
• His reign spanning from the 17th to 18th century.
• In France.
• He defined absolute rule and made France a centralized powerful state.

Mercantilism

• Followed by European nations, including Spain, France, and Britain.
• This economic theory promotes building wealth through trade.
• Especially through exporting rather than importing.
• This was practiced from the 16th to 18th century.
• Europe but also in some other colonies.
• It encouraged colonial expansion, which created European empires in the Americas, Africa, and Asia.

Versailles

• Built by Louis XIV.
• Symbol of absolute power and nobility.
• Constructed in the 17th century.
• Located in Versailles, France, near Paris.
• Symbol of royal authority and helped Louis XIV maintain French nobility.

Constitutional Monarchy

• Leaders like Charles I of England and later William and Mary, supported it.
• A system of government where the monarch's powers are limited by laws or a constitution.
• Established in England in the 17th century.
• England.
• It reduced the monarch's absolute power.

Charles I

• King of England during the English Civil War
• His conflicts with Parliament led to his execution that signified the end of absolute monarchy
• During the 17th century.
• In England.
• He caused the English Civil War and led to the end of absolute monarchy.

Parliament

• England's government body.
• A group that makes laws and limits the king’s power.
• Parliament was extremely powerful during the 13th - 17th centuries.
• Located in England.
• Helped shift power away from absolute monarchs and towards democracy.

Commonwealth

• Led by Oliver Cromwell.
• This was a short-lived republic in England without a king.
• Established in the 17th century.
• This commonwealth was in England.
• First time England was ruled without a king.

Oliver Cromwell

• A military leader and ruler of England.
• He took over after the English Civil War.
• In the 17th century.
• He ruled in England.
• He got rid of the monarchy.

Restoration

• English people and Parliament.
• The return of the monarchy after Cromwell's rule.
• Occurred in the 17th century.
• the location was England.
• People tired of strict rule and wanted a king back.

Glorious Revolution

• Parliament and King James II
• Described as a peaceful overthrow of King James II
• Occurred during the 17th century.
• Took place in England.
• This Strengthened Parliament’s power made sure England wouldn’t have absolute rulers again.

Bill of Rights

• Involved Parliament and King William and Queen Mary of England.
• A law that gave rights and limited the King's power.
• Established in the 17th century.
• Located in England.
• Set the foundation for modern democracy in England.

Group 3 Vocabulary

Seven Years War

• Fought between Britain and France.
• It was a global battle over European dominance.
• The war was in the 18th century.
• It took place in Europe, North America, the Caribbean, India, and West Africa.
• This weakened France financially, leading to higher taxes and debt that caused the French Revolution.

American Revolution

• The American Colonists fought against Britain.
• It was a war over independence.
• Fought in the 18th century.
• The location was North America.
• Inspired by Enlightenment ideas and popular sovereignty, led to the U.S. making a democratic government.

Marquis de Lafayette

• A French nobleman and military leader.
• He helped America fight Britain, and was key in both the American and French Revolutions.
• The 18th and 19th centuries.
• He fought in France and America.
• Lafayette symbolized a link and similarities between the American and French Revolutions.

Estates General

• Included representatives from France's three social classes
• First Estate = clergy
• Second Estate = nobility
• Third Estate = commoners
• An assembly was called by Louis XVI to deal with France's financial crisis
• In the 18th century.
• This happened in France.
• The Third Estate didn't like unfair voting.

National Assembly

• Mostly members of the Third Estate.
• A new French government to represent people and reforms.
• Established in the 18th century.
• France.
• The assembly marked a shift to popular sovereignty, away from absolute monarchy.

Tennis Court Oath

• The National Assembly took this.
• It was a pledge to keep meeting until they made a new constitution for France.
• It took place in the 18th century.
• This took place at a Tennis Court in Versailles.

Bastille

• Revolutionary mob and troops
• They stormed a prison looking for weapons.
• This happened in the 18th century.
• It took place in France.
• Seen as the symbolic start of the French Revolution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

• Written by the National Assembly.
• A concept that all men are equal, have rights, and the government should protect them.
• Was created in the 18th century.
• In France.
• This is defining revolutions wants and needs.

Louis XVI

• King of France during the French Revolution.
• He tried to raise taxes in response to France's debt and was then guillotined.
• During the 18th century.
• In France.
• His death was the end of the monarchy, and the rise of revolutionary government.

Robespierre

• The Leader of the French Revolution.
• Led the Reign of Terror.
• in the 18th century.
• The base location was France.
• Policies turned people against him: he was executed.

Reign of Terror

• Led by Robespierre
• Thousands were executed, but this was not just.
• During the 18th century.
• The location was France.
• The reign showed how revolutions are too extreme.

Napoleon

• A military general. Later Emperor of France.
• Took control after the French revolution and expanded France.
• He was active during the 18th and 19th centuries.
• In France
• He spread revolutionary ideas across Europe but was also a dictator.

Napoleonic Code

• Created by Napoleon.
• It promises equal rights under the law, but has some limited freedoms.

Concordat

• An agreement between Napoleon and the Catholic Church
• Catholicism was the main religion in France, but the government stays in control.
• This was in the 19th century.
• In France.
• The events ended church-state conflicts.

Meritocracy

• Promoted by Napoleon.
• A concept that people are rewarded based on ability rather than birth.
• Rose in the 19th century.
• Rose in France, spread across Europe. Ending the noble privilege; ordinary people can rise.

Balance of Power

• Occurred between European leaders post-Napoleon.
• The plan was to prevent countries from becoming too powerful.
• 19th century.
• Europe.
• this Kept Europe stable after Napoleonic Wars.

Group 4 Vocabulary

Ming Dynasty

• A Chinese ruling dynasty
• It overthrew the Mongols, and focused on rebuilding China's greatness
• From the 14th - 17th centuries.
• China.
• This was known for trade expansion.

Qin Dynasty

• First dynasty to unite China
• It created a centralized government, and built the Great Wall.
• The dynasty utilized a strict legal system.
• During the 3rd century BCE.
• China.
• Though short, its actions established China's imperial structure for centuries.

Great Divergence

• Between West Europe and China/Asia.
• Europe's economy started growing faster than Asia's.
• From the 18th to 19th centuries
• Mostly Europe and some North America.
• This led to mass production, urbanization, and major economic changes.

First Industrial Revolution

• Started in Britain then reached other European nations and the U.S.
• this revolution shifted to production moving from homemade goods to machines and factories
• During the 18th and 19th centuries.
• Mostly Europe and North America.
• the mass production, urbanization, and major economic changes.

Textiles

• British, Indian, and European manufacturers.
• The first industry was mechanized during the Industrial Revolution (cloth and clothing production).
• The 18th and 19th centuries.
• Britain, India, and the U.S.
• Sped up production, increased demand for cotton, helped Britain dominate world trade.

Railroads

• First built in Britain, spread worldwide.
• New transportation system, using steam engines
• 19th century.
• Europe, U.S., Asia later.
• This connected cities and helped travel.

Second Institutional Revolution

• The U.S., Germany, and Britain
• This was a period of even faster industrial growth with new technologies like electricity and chemicals
• From the 19th - 20th centuries.
• Mostly Europe and North America.
• Created modern cities, skyscrapers, and cars.

Warring States Period

• Competing Chinese states and warlords
• Time of constant warfare before China was united under the Qin Dynasty
• 5th - 3rd centuries BCE
• Occurred in China

Tokugawa Shogunate

• The Tokugawa family was running Japan.
• A period of peace and isolation
• The 17th - 19th centuries.
• The location was Japan.
• This kept foreign influence out, but fell behind in technology.

Meiji Restoration

• Japanese emperor Meiji and reformers.
• Japan's rapid modernization post isolation.
• Occurred in the 19th Century.
• In Japan.
• Resulted in Japan turning into an industrial and military power.

Russo Japanese War

• A war over control of Korea and Manchuria between Japan and Russia.
• During 20th century.
• Northeast Asia.
• The First time an Asian country defeated a European power.

Westernization

• Japan, Russia, and Turkey.
• These countries adopted European and American technology, culture, and government systems.
• From the 18th - 20th centuries.
• Asia, the Middle East, and some of Africa.
• Helped nations modernize, compete with the West, but also created some conflicts.

Isolationism

• Practiced by countries like China and Japan.
• This cut off trade and conflict with foreign nations.
• The practice was during the 17th-19th centuries.
• This was active in China, Japan, and Korea.
• It helped maintain stability but caused them to fall behind in technology and the economy.

Opium War

• China vs. Britain.
• Britain sold opium to China. Resulting in a war when China tried to stop it.
• This was in the 19th century.
• China.
• China lost, Britain forced open trade, West dominated over China.

Treaty of Ranking

• Between Britain and China
• Ended the Opium War.
• During the 19th century
• China.
• The treaty Gave Britain control of Hong Kong, opened Chinese ports to British trade and China was seen as weak.

Boxer Rebellion

• The Chinese nationalists fought against Western powers.
• It was an anti-foreigner uprising in China.
• From the 19th - 20th centuries.
• China.
• Rebellion failed because China was more foreign-controlled.

Sphere of Influence

• Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan in China.
• Areas where foreign nations controlled trade and resources in another country.
• From the 19th - 20th centuries.
• China, parts of Africa, the Middle East.
• The imperial powers divided weaker nations for economic gain.

New Imperialism

• European powers, the U.S., and Japan.
• A more aggressive form of imperialism where European nations rapidly took over land in Africa and Asia to build empires.
• From the 19th - 20th centuries.
• This included Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Islands.
• It was fueled by industrialization, nationalism, and racial ideologies, leading to conflicts and resistance movements.

Neo-Europes

• European settlers in the Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa.
• Places where Europeans settled in large numbers and transformed the land, society, and economy to resemble Europe.
• From the 17th - 20th centuries.
• North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Argentina.
• These areas became economic powerhouses.

Charles Darwin

• A British scientist.
• He developed the theory of evolution through natural selection.
• During the 19th century.
• In Britain, his ideas influenced the world.
• His discoveries changed biology forever, but also inspired Social Darwinism which misused his ideas to justify racism and imperialism.

Social Darwinism

• European and American elites
• A twisted version of Darwin's ideas, claiming that stronger races/nations are meant to dominate weaker ones.
• 19th - 20th centuries.
• In Europe, the U.S., and colonial territories.
• Used to justify imperialism, racism, and exploitation.

Civilizing Mission

• European imperialists
• The belief that Europeans had a duty to "civilize" non-European peoples by spreading Christianity, Western culture, and education
• From the 19th - 20th centuries.
• Africa, Asia, Pacific Islands.
• This was an excuse for colonialism.

British East India Company

• British trading company that became a ruling power in India
• Started as a trading group but eventually controlled large parts of India through military force and diplomacy.
• 17th - 19th centuries.
• Was established in India.
• The Company led to British domination of India, but also caused rebellions and resentment, leading to direct British rule.

Sepoy Rebellion (Indian Revolt of 1857)

• The conflict between Indian soldiers (sepoys) and British rule.
• This was a massive rebellion against British control, sparked by anger over cultural disrespect and oppression.
• 19th century.
• In India.
• This led to Britain crushed the rebellion and took direct control over India, leading to more resistance against colonial rule.

Scramble for Africa

• European powers like Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium.
• This was a rapid rush to colonize Africa and divide the continent among European nations.
• 19th century.
• In Africa.
• This was fueled by the need for resources, power, and racial superiority, and it ignored African cultures and led to long-term instability.

Tools of Empire

• European imperialists
• The technologies and tactics that allowed Europeans to dominate other regions.
• 19th - 20th centuries.
• This included Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Islands.
• Innovations like steamships, railroads, the telegraph, and machine guns made it easy for small European armies to control vast territories.

Berlin Conference

• European powers, led by Otto von Bismarck.
• A meeting to divide Africa among European countries to avoid war between them.
• The 19th century.
• Berlin, Germany.
• This occurred without Africans to be invited, and the decisions led to brutal colonial rule, artificial borders, and long-term conflicts.

Otto von Bismarck

• The leader who unified Germany
• Used strategy and conflict to bring Germany together.
• He was active during the 19th century.
• His base was Germany.
• He created a powerful German Empire.

Boer War

• A conflict between the British and Boers (Dutch settlers in South Africa).
• A war over control of South Africa and its valuable resources (gold and diamonds).
• It was during the 19th and 20th centuries.
• In South Africa.
• Britain won, but it exposed the brutality of empire through concentration camps.

Revolutions of 1848

• European workers, middle class, and nationalists.
• A series of failed revolts against conservative governments across Europe.
• In the 19th century.
• France, Italy, Germany, Austria, and more.
• People wanted democracy, rights, and national unity.

Crimean War

• Between Russia and Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire.
• A war over control of the Black Sea region.
• The 19th century.
• Crimea (modern Ukraine).
• It weakened Russia, stopping its expansion.

Conservatism

• Nobles, monarchs, and the wealthy elite.
• A belief in keeping traditions, monarchy, and social order.
• From the 19th - 20th centuries.
• In Europe and the U.S.
• Aimed to opposed revolutions and democracy.

Liberalism

• Middle-class intellectuals and business owners.
• A political ideology that supported democracy, individual rights, and free markets.
• 19th - 20th centuries.
• This mostly occurred in Europe and the U.S..

Radicalism

• Working-class revolutionaries and socialists
• A belief in completely restructuring society is often through revolution
• The 19th - 20th centuries
• In Europe and Russia.
• It wanted social equality, and worker rights.

Nationalism

• People with shared culture, language, or history
• The belief that people should be loyal to their nation, and not to a king or empire.
• From the 19th - 20th centuries.
• This has occurred in Europe, the Americas, and Asia.
• This has fueled independence movements.