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Questions and Answers
What syndrome can one begin to depict when taking steroids in high doses?
What syndrome can one begin to depict when taking steroids in high doses?
In what type of gland is pancreatic juice produced?
In what type of gland is pancreatic juice produced?
What type of hormones do not travel far away and have localized effects?
What type of hormones do not travel far away and have localized effects?
Which signaling molecules are formed from fatty acids within the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane?
Which signaling molecules are formed from fatty acids within the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane?
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Which type of drugs inhibit prostaglandin formation by blocking arachidonic acid release?
Which type of drugs inhibit prostaglandin formation by blocking arachidonic acid release?
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What enzyme is inhibited by COX inhibitors, such as aspirin and ibuprofen?
What enzyme is inhibited by COX inhibitors, such as aspirin and ibuprofen?
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Which of the following is NOT a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug?
Which of the following is NOT a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug?
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What is the main effect of prostaglandins in the body?
What is the main effect of prostaglandins in the body?
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What is the primary mechanism of action of steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (SAIDs) like cortisol and corticosterone?
What is the primary mechanism of action of steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (SAIDs) like cortisol and corticosterone?
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Which type of signaling molecules are synthesized through an enzymatic cascade and stimulate pain and inflammatory responses?
Which type of signaling molecules are synthesized through an enzymatic cascade and stimulate pain and inflammatory responses?
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What is the role of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like aspirin and ibuprofen in inhibiting inflammation?
What is the role of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like aspirin and ibuprofen in inhibiting inflammation?
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Which of the following hormones exhibit autocrine stimulation by binding to the cells that release them?
Which of the following hormones exhibit autocrine stimulation by binding to the cells that release them?
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What is the main effect of prostaglandins in the body?
What is the main effect of prostaglandins in the body?
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Which type of drugs like aspirin and ibuprofen are classified as COX inhibitors for their mechanism of action in inflammation?
Which type of drugs like aspirin and ibuprofen are classified as COX inhibitors for their mechanism of action in inflammation?
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What common misconception might arise about local hormones based on their ability to bind to neighboring cells for stimulation?
What common misconception might arise about local hormones based on their ability to bind to neighboring cells for stimulation?
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How do eicosanoids differ from phospholipids within the membrane?
How do eicosanoids differ from phospholipids within the membrane?
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How do nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like celecoxib (Celebrex) act differently from steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (SAIDs)?
How do nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like celecoxib (Celebrex) act differently from steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (SAIDs)?
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What is a potential misconception about the actions of steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (SAIDs) on arachidonic acid?
What is a potential misconception about the actions of steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (SAIDs) on arachidonic acid?
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Study Notes
Overview of the Endocrine System
- The endocrine system consists of glands that produce and secrete hormones that regulate various bodily functions
- The endocrine system works closely with the nervous system to maintain homeostasis
Comparison of the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
- Both systems can have similar effects on target cells (e.g. Norepinephrine and glucagon both cause glycogen hydrolysis in liver)
- The two systems can regulate each other (e.g. neurotransmitters can affect glands, and hormones can affect neurons)
- Neuroendocrine cells share characteristics with both systems (e.g. neuron-like cells that secrete oxytocin into blood)
Chemical Classes of Hormones
- Lipid-soluble hormones (e.g. progesterone, estrogen, testosterone, cortisol, and thyroxine)
- Nonpolar and lipophilic
- Need carrier protein in the blood
- Can diffuse across target cell membrane
- Their receptors are in the cytosol or nucleus
- Water-soluble hormones (e.g. peptides and catecholamines)
- Polar and hydrophilic
- Dissolve in the blood without help of carrier protein
- Cannot diffuse across target cell membrane
- Utilize G-protein coupled receptors
Pituitary Gland
- Embryonic development: derived from Rathke's pouch
- Posterior pituitary anatomy: consists of axons from the hypothalamus
- Anterior pituitary anatomy: consists of endocrine cells
- Histology of the pituitary gland: consists of chromophobes, acidophils, and basophils
- Posterior pituitary hormones:
- Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin): decreases urine production, stimulates thirst, constricts blood vessels
- Oxytocin: causes uterine contraction, milk ejection, and emotional bonding
- Anterior pituitary hormones:
- Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH): promotes secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and prolactin (PRL)
- Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH): promotes secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): promotes secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
- Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH): promotes secretion of growth hormone (GH)
- Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH): inhibits secretion of prolactin (PRL)
- Somatostatin: inhibits secretion of growth hormone (GH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Thyroid Gland
- Anatomy: consists of follicular cells and parafollicular cells
- Thyroid hormone synthesis:
- Follicular cells absorb iodide (I−) ions from blood and oxidize them to a reactive form
- The cells also synthesize the large protein thyroglobulin (Tg) and store it in follicle lumen
- Iodine (one or two atoms) is added to tyrosines within Tg
- When two tyrosines within Tg meet, they link to each other forming forerunners of T3 (three iodines) and T4 (four iodines)
- Effects of thyroxine:
- Increases metabolic rate and protein synthesis in targets
- Stimulates synthesis of sodium-potassium pumps in neurons
- Calorigenic: generates heat, raises temperature
- Stimulates increased amino acid and glucose uptake
- Increases number of cellular respiration enzymes within mitochondria
- Fosters energy (ATP) production
- Thyroid-pituitary axis:
- Hyperthyroidism: results from excessive production of TH (increased metabolic rate, weight loss, hyperactivity, heat intolerance)
- Hypothyroidism: results from decreased production of TH (low metabolic rate, lethargy, cold intolerance, weight gain)
- Goiter: enlargement of thyroid visually (can be caused by hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism)
Adrenal Glands
- Zona glomerulosa: thin, outer cortical layer (mineralocorticoids synthesized here help regulate electrolyte concentration in body fluids)
- Zona fasciculata: middle, largest layer (glucocorticoids synthesized here)
- Zona reticularis: innermost region of cortex (secrete minor amounts of sex hormones)
- Regulation and action of cortisol:
- Hormone variables that influence blood levels of cortisol
- Clinical view: stress response
- Addison's disease: form of adrenal insufficiency develops when adrenal glands fail (chronic shortage of glucocorticoids and sometimes mineralocorticoids)
- Cushing syndrome: chronic exposure to excessive glucocorticoid hormones
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Description
Test your knowledge on the signs and symptoms of Graves' disease, focusing on the enlargement of the thyroid gland (goiter) and exopthalmos. Explore the immunological aspects of Graves’ Ophthalmopathy through this quiz.
