Grammar: Subject-verb, Pronoun Agreement & Tense

Grammar

• Verbs must agree in number with their subjects, where a singular subject uses a singular verb, and a plural subject uses a plural verb, for example, "The dog barks" vs "The dogs bark".
• Pronouns need to agree in number and gender using antecedents, for example, "The student finished their homework" becomes "The student finished his or her homework" or "The students finished their homework."
• Maintain consistent verb tense unless a clear reason exists to shift, for example, "I went to the store, and I bought milk" or "I am going to the store, and I will buy milk" are correct, but "I went to the store, and I will buy milk" is incorrect.
• "A," "an," and "the" are articles, where "a" and "an" are indefinite, and "the" is definite; use "a" before consonant sounds and "an" before vowel sounds, for example, "a book," "an apple," and "the car."
• Commas are used to separate items in a list, with introductory phrases/clauses, and to join independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, for example, "I bought apples, bananas, and oranges," "After the movie, we went home," and "The sun was shining, and the birds were singing."
• Semicolons join closely related independent clauses or separate items in a list that contains, for example, "The rain fell heavily; the game was canceled," and "I need to buy milk, eggs, and bread; butter, cheese, and yogurt; and apples, oranges, and bananas."
• Apostrophes indicate possession or form contractions, for example, "John's car," and "it's" (it is).
• Place modifiers close to modify words/phrases to avoid ambiguity, for example, "I ate the donut covered in chocolate" is correct, whereas "Covered in chocolate, I ate the donut" is incorrect.
• Use parallel structure for listing items/phrases, with same grammatical structure for each item, for example, "I like hiking, swimming, and biking" is correct, whereas, "I like hiking, to swim, and biking" is incorrect.

History

• The earliest civilizations arose in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, and China.
• Key features of Ancient Civilizations included agriculture, urbanization, social stratification, and the development of writing systems.
• Ancient Greece was known for democracy, philosophy, and advancements in mathematics and science, including key figures such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
• Major events of Ancient Greece include the Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War.
• The Roman Empire expanded from Italy to encompass much of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, and was known for its legal system, engineering, and military prowess.
• Key figures of the Roman Empire include Julius Caesar and Augustus, and it eventually split into the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.
• The Middle Ages was the period in European history between the fall of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.
• The Middle Ages were characterized by feudalism, the Crusades, and the influence of the Catholic Church.
• The Renaissance was a period of renewed interest in classical art, literature, and learning that began in Italy and spread throughout Europe.
• Key figures of the Renaissance were Leanardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael.
• The Reformation was a religious movement that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the rise of Protestantism.
• Key Figures of the Reformation were Martin Luther and John Calvin.
• The Age of Exploration was a period of European exploration and colonization of the Americas, Africa, and Asia.
• Key figures of the Age of Exploration were Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Ferdinand Magellan.
• The Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural movement that emphasized reason, individualism, and human rights.
• Key figures of the Enlightenment were John Locke, Jean-Jaques Rousseau, and Immanuel Kant.
• The French Revolution was a period of social and political upheaval in France that led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic.
• Key figures of the French Revolution were Maximillian Robespierre and Napoleon Bonaparte.
• The Industrial Revolution was a period of major technological advancement that began in Britain and spread throughout the world.
• Key inventions of the Industrial Revolution were the steam engine and the power loom.
• World War I was a global conflict that involved the major powers of Europe, as well as the United States and other countries.
• Key events of World War I include the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the Treaty of Versailles.
• World War II was a global conflict that involved the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allied powers (Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union).
• Key events of World War II include the invasion of Poland, the Holocaust, and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
• The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies.
• Key events of the Cold War include the Cuban Missile Crisis and the fall of the Berlin Wall.

Literature

• Epic Poetry: A long narrative poem about heroic deeds of a legendary/historical figure, for example, The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer, The Aeneid by Virgil, and Beowulf (anonymous).
• Tragedy: Drama where the protagonist suffers a downfall because of a tragic flaw/external forces, examples include Hamlet and Othello by William Shakespeare and Oedipus Rex by Sophocles.
• Comedy: Drama intended to amuse the audience, often with a happy ending, for example, A Midsummer Night's Dream by William Shakespeare, and Lysistrata by Aristophanes.
• Novel: A long fictional narrative, typically written in prose, for example, Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez, and To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee.
• Short Story: Brief work of fiction, generally focuses on a single incident/theme, for example, "The Tell-Tale Heart" by Edgar Allan Poe, "A Rose for Emily" by William Faulkner, and "The Lottery" by Shirley Jackson.
• Poetry: Verse written to create a response of thought and feeling, and forms include sonnets (William Shakespeare, Petrarch), haikus (Matsuo Basho), and free verse (Walt Whitman).
• Drama: Play written for the stage, for example, Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, and A Streetcar Named Desire by Tennessee Williams.
• Literary Movements: Historical periods, and have specific philosophical, social, and artistic attributes, for example.
• Romanticism: Emphasized emotion, individualism, and the sublime in nature (William Wordsworth, Lord Byron).
• Realism: Focused on portraying everyday life accurately and objectively (Gustave Flaubert, Leo Tolstoy).
• Modernism: Éxperimentation, alienation, and rejection of traditional values (T.S. Eliot, James Joyce).
• Postmodernism: Questions grand narratives and embraces subjectivity, irony, and intertextuality (Thomas Pynchon, Don DeLillo).
• Literary Devices: Technique writers use to convey meaning and create effects.
• Metaphor: Comparison without using "like" or "as," for example, "The world is a stage."
• Simile: Comparison uses "like" or "as," for example, "as brave as a lion."
• Alliteration: Repetition of initial consonant sounds, for example, "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers."
• Imagery: Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.
• Irony: Contrast between what is said/actually meant (verbal), what is expected/what happens (situational), or what the audience knows that a character doesn't (dramatic).
• Themes: Recurring ideas/concepts explored in a literary work, some of which are love, loss, alienation, identity, and the human condition.

Understanding grammar rules such as subject-verb agreement ensures clarity. Pronoun agreement maintains consistency by matching pronouns to their nouns. Consistent verb tense is also crucial for clear writing.