Grammar and Punctuation

• Grammar is the system of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases, clauses, and sentences
• It encompasses aspects such as syntax, morphology, and semantics to ensure clear and coherent communication
• Punctuation is the use of symbols such as periods, commas, and parentheses to structure and organize written language
• It clarifies meaning, separates ideas, and guides the reader through the text

Parts of Speech

• Nouns are words that represent people, places, things, or ideas, and can function as subjects, objects, or complements in a sentence
• Pronouns are words that replace nouns or noun phrases, such as "he," "she," or "it," to avoid repetition
• Verbs are words that express actions, occurrences, or states of being, and are crucial for forming the predicate of a sentence
• Adjectives are words that modify nouns or pronouns, providing descriptive details about their qualities or characteristics
• Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, indicating manner, time, place, or degree
• Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in the sentence, often indicating location, direction, or time
• Conjunctions are words that connect words, phrases, or clauses, such as "and," "but," or "or," to indicate relationships between them
• Interjections are words that express strong emotions or sudden feelings, such as "Wow!" or "Ouch!"

Sentence Structure

• A subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the action or is being described in a sentence
• A predicate is the part of a sentence that contains the verb and expresses what the subject does or is
• A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate
• An independent clause is a clause that can stand alone as a sentence because it expresses a complete thought
• A dependent clause is a clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence and relies on an independent clause to form a complete thought
• A simple sentence consists of one independent clause
• A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, semicolon, or colon
• A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
• A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses

Verb Tenses

• Simple present tense indicates actions or states that occur regularly, habitually, or are generally true
• Present continuous tense indicates actions that are currently in progress or happening around the present time
• Simple past tense indicates actions or events that occurred and were completed at a specific time in the past
• Past continuous tense indicates actions that were in progress at a specific time in the past
• Present perfect tense indicates actions that started in the past and continue to the present or have relevance to the present
• Past perfect tense indicates actions that were completed before another action or time in the past
• Simple future tense indicates actions or events that will occur in the future
• Future continuous tense indicates actions that will be in progress at a specific time in the future
• Future perfect tense indicates actions that will be completed before a specific time in the future
• Future perfect continuous tense indicates actions that will have been in progress for a period of time leading up to a specific point in the future

Subject-Verb Agreement

• Singular subjects must agree with singular verbs
• Plural subjects must agree with plural verbs
• Compound subjects joined by "and" usually take a plural verb
• Collective nouns can take either a singular or plural verb, depending on whether they are acting as a single unit or as individual members
• Indefinite pronouns (e.g., "each," "every," "some") can be singular or plural, depending on the context

Pronoun Agreement

• Pronouns must agree in number, gender, and person with the nouns they refer to (antecedents)
• Singular antecedents require singular pronouns, and plural antecedents require plural pronouns
• Use gender-neutral pronouns (e.g., "they," "them," "their") when the gender of the antecedent is unknown or non-binary

Correct Word Usage

• Affect (verb) means to influence or produce an effect, while effect (noun) refers to the result or consequence of an action
• There indicates location, their shows possession, and they're is a contraction of "they are"
• To indicates direction or purpose, too means also or excessively, and two is the number 2
• It's is a contraction of "it is" or "it has", while its indicates possession
• Your shows possession, while you're is a contraction of "you are"
• Who refers to people, while which refers to things or animals
• That can refer to either people, things or animals
• Then indicates time sequence or consequence, whereas than is used for comparisons

Common Grammatical Errors

• Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences that lack a subject or a predicate
• Run-on sentences occur when two or more independent clauses are not properly joined by punctuation or conjunctions
• Misplaced modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that are placed too far away from the words they modify, leading to confusion
• Dangling modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that do not have a clear word to modify in the sentence
• Parallelism errors occur when items in a series or list are not grammatically consistent in structure

Punctuation Marks

• Periods (.) mark the end of a declarative sentence and indicate a full stop
• Commas (,) separate elements in a list, clauses in a sentence, and introduce or set off introductory words or phrases
• Semicolons (;) join two related independent clauses or separate items in a list when commas are already used within the items
• Colons (:) introduce a list, explanation, or example
• Question marks (?) indicate a question or inquiry
• Exclamation points (!) express strong emotion, emphasis, or surprise
• Apostrophes (') indicate possession or form contractions
• Quotation marks (" ") enclose direct quotations or indicate dialogue
• Parentheses ( ) enclose additional or explanatory information that is not essential to the sentence
• Dashes (—) indicate a sudden break, interruption, or emphasis in a sentence
• Hyphens (-) join words or parts of words together, such as in compound adjectives
• Brackets ([ ]) enclose additional or explanatory information added by someone other than the original writer or speaker
• Ellipses (...) indicate omitted words or a pause in speech or writing

Capitalization

• Capitalize the first word of a sentence
• Capitalize proper nouns, including names of people, places, organizations, and titles
• Capitalize the first word in a direct quotation
• Capitalize the days of the week, months of the year, and holidays
• Do not capitalize common nouns unless they are part of a proper noun or title

Style and Tone

• Formal language is appropriate for academic writing, business correspondence, and other professional contexts
• Informal language is suitable for casual conversations, personal emails, and creative writing
• Active voice is when the subject performs the action
• Passive voice is when the subject receives the action
• Clarity means to avoid ambiguity, jargon, and complex sentence structures
• Conciseness is to express ideas using as few words as possible without sacrificing meaning
• Coherence is ensuring that ideas flow logically and are connected using transitions and clear references