Grade 11: Human Body Respiratory System

Biological Processes in Human Body

• Biological Processes in the Human Body are being covered
• This is Grade 11 material

Respiratory System

• The respiratory system is the system in the diagram
• The left lung is smaller than the right to accommodate the heart
• The epiglottis prevents food particles from entering the respiratory tract

Components of the System

• Nasal cavity
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Bronchioles
• Alveoli
• Diaphragm
• There are three bronchi on the right lung and two on the left lung.
• The intercostal muscles connect the lungs to the ribs.
• The sternum connects the ribs

Nasal Cavity Function

• Air purification via mucous production, trapping dust particles
• Warming the air to body temperature from room temperature (approximately 25°C to 37°C)
• Moistening the air

Larynx Function

• Sound production through vocal cord vibration

Respiration Process

• Consists of three steps:
  • Exchange of gases between the environment and lungs
  • Exchange of gases between alveoli and blood capillaries
  • Cellular respiration

Inhalation

• When carbon dioxide levels increase, intercostal muscles and the diaphragm contract, expanding the rib cage and moving the sternum forward.
• The diaphragm moves downwards
• The volume of the lungs increases, drawing air in from the environment

Exhalation

• After maximum inhalation, intercostal muscles and the diaphragm relax.
• The ribs move downwards and the sternum moves backward
• The diaphragm moves upwards, decreasing lung volume and expelling air

Alveoli Characteristics

• Respiratory surface of a human being
• Have a thin wall
• Have a large surface area
• Highly vascularized
• Permitted for respiratory gases

Gas Exchange

• Diffusion facilitates gas exchange between alveoli and blood capillaries
• Substances transfer from high to low concentration areas

Alveoli and Blood Capillaries

• The pulmonary artery brings deoxygenated blood to the alveoli
• Alveoli contain air with high oxygen and low carbon dioxide levels
• Oxygen from the alveoli enters the blood capillary
• Carbon dioxide from the blood capillary enters the alveoli

Cellular Respiration

• Oxidation of glucose to produce energy

Respiration Types

• Aerobic Respiration: Occurs in the presence of oxygen
• Anaerobic Respiration: Occurs in the absence of oxygen

Anaerobic Reaction Equations

• Plants and Animals: C6H12O6 → Lactic Acid + energy
• Animals and Plants: C6H12O6 → Ethyl Alcohol + CO2 + Energy

Energy Storage

• Energy is stored as ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
• A form of chemical energy
• Lactic acid accumulation in muscles causes cramps

ATP Functions

• Storage of energy
• Transportation of energy
• Release of energy

Respiratory System Diseases

• Common Cold: Virus
• Pneumonia: Bacterium or a virus
• Asthma: Dust, pollen, sawdust, fur, smoke
• Bronchitis or Bronchiolar Inflammation: Viral or bacterial infections
• Tuberculosis: Bacterium
• Silicosis: Inhalation of air with silicon-containing compounds
• Asbestosis: Inhalation of air containing asbestos particles and fibers

Tuberculosis Symptoms

• Tiredness
• Loss of appetite
• Fever
• Release of blood during coughing
• Weight loss

Pneumonia Symptoms

• Prolonged cold
• Cough

Carbon Monoxide as Poison

• Carbon monoxide readily binds with haemoglobin, preventing oxygen binding and reducing blood's oxygen-carrying capacity

Digestion

• The process where complex substances convert into simple ones for body absorption

Digestive System Parts

• Buccal cavity
• Oesophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Anus
• Rectum
• Gall bladder
• Liver

Pharynx

• The common opening for the digestive and respiratory tracts

Epiglottis

• The part in the digestive system preventing food from entering the respiratory tract

Peristalsis

• Food transported through the esophagus by alternative contraction and relaxation of muscles

Complex to Simple Digestion Chart

• Starch (Salivary amylase, Pancreatic amylase) → Maltose (Maltase) → Glucose
• Protein (Pepsin, Trypsin) → Polypeptide (Peptidase) → Amino Acids
• Lipid (Lipase) → Fatty Acid + Glycerol
• Lactose (Lactase) → Glucose + Galactose
• Sucrose (Sucrase) → Glucose + Fructose

Gastric Juice Constituents

• Produced when food enters the stomach
• Hydrochloric acid: Stops salivary amylase function and stimulates pepsin
• Pepsin converts protein to polypeptide
• Renin coagulates milk
• Mucous lubricates the stomach wall
• Water aids in the digestion of food

Food Acidity in Stomach

• Acidic

Chyme

• Food in the stomach after initial digestion

Juices Secreted in Duodenum

• Bile
• Pancreatic juice
• Intestinal juice

Bile Constituents and Functions

• Bicarbonate ions neutralize chyme
• Bile salts emulsify lipids
• Bile pigment coloring faeces
• Water aids digestion

Pancreatic Juice Function

• Pancreatic amylase converts starch to maltose

Other Digestive Juices

• Trypsin converts protein to polypeptide
• Lipase converts lipids to fatty acids and glycerol

Intestinal Juice Functions

• Maltase converts maltose to glucose
• Peptidase converts polypeptide to amino acids
• Lactase converts lactose to glucose + galactose
• Sucrase converts sucrose to glucose + fructose

Digestion and Absorption

• Digestion stops, and absorption starts in the small intestine (Duodenum)

Small Intestine Parts

• Deodenum
• Jejunum
• Illeum

Bile Production and Storage

• Bile is produced in the liver and stored/secreted in the gall bladder

Small Intestine Adaptations

• Long tube structure increases surface area
• Contains circular folds
• Presence of finger-like projections (villi)
• Villi contain microvilli
• Highly vascularized

Absorption Components

• Blood: Monosaccharides, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, water
• Lacteals: Fatty acids and glycerol

Large Intestine

• Absorbs water and minerals
• Removes undigested food particles forming faeces
• Faeces is not waste, and bile pigment is the only waste in it.

Digestive System Diseases

• Gastritis (inflammation of inner lining of mucous): Consuming spicy/oily food
• Constipation (difficulty in defecation): Delaying of defecation
• Diarrhoea: Parasite, virus, bacteria
• Typhoid Fever: Bacteria living in fresh water

Blood Circulatory System

• Transports components and waste in and out of cells in the body

Blood Components

• Blood Corpuscles: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
• Blood Plasma

Blood Plasma Constituents

• Water
• Nutrients: Monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins
• Ions
• Respiratory gases

Plasma Waste

• Urea
• Uric Acid
• Creatinine

Other Plasma Components

• Antigens
• Antibodies
• Hormones

Blood Cell Types

White Blood Cells

• Divided into granulocytes and non-granulocytes based on the presence or absence of granules
• Granulocytes are further divided based on the number of lobes
  • Neutrophil (Phagocytosis)
  • Eosinophil (Allergic Reaction)
  • Basophil (Allergic Reaction)
• Non-granulocytes are divided based on the shape of the nucleus:
  • Lymphocyte (Antibody production)
  • Monocyte (Phagocytosis)

Blood Vessels

Heart

• Superior vena cava
• Right atrium
• Aorta/systemic artery
• Left atrium
• Pulmonary artery
• Pulmonary vein
• Bicuspid valve
• Left ventricle
• Right ventricle
• Tricuspid valve
• Semilunar valve
• Inferior vena cava

Heartbeat Process

• The superior vena cava brings deoxygenated blood from the head and hands to the right atrium
• The inferior vena cava carries deoxygenated blood from all other parts of the body to the right atrium
• Simultaneously, oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium through the pulmonary vein
• When both atria are full, they contract (diastole), which opens the tricuspid and bicuspid valves.
• Blood flows from the atria to the ventricles
• These valves close, producing the "lub" sound

Heart Contraction

• When the ventricles are filled with blood, they contract
• Referred to as systole
• The semilunar valves open, and the blood from the right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery and the blood from the left ventricle enters the aorta/systemic artery The semilunar valves close, creating the "dup" sound.
• Oxygenated blood in the aorta goes to all body parts
• Blood in the pulmonary artery goes to the lungs
• Atria and ventricles relax (interveining)

Heartbeat Steps

• Diastole: Contraction of atria
• Systole: Contraction of ventricles
• Interveining: Relaxation of atria and ventricles

Circulations

• Systematic circulation brings blood from the heart to the body
• Pulmonary circulation brings blood from the heart to the lungs
• Normal blood pressure : 120/80mmHg
• Blood pressure = Systolic blood pressure / Diastolic blood pressure

Double Circulation

• When blood travels through the body and heart twice in one cycle.

Tissue Fluid

• Tissue fluid is fluid that enters from the blood capillary into the tissue. 
• Its all constitutes are those of blood, except red blood cell and plasma protein. 
• Lymph system transports 1/10 of the tissue fluid remaining in the intercellular space back into the blood circulatory system.

Lymphatic System Components

• Lymph
• Lymph vessel
• Lymph nodes

Lymph Flow

• Lymph -> Lymph vessel -> Lymph nodes

Kuddetti

• Inflammation or swelling of the lymph nodes

Blood Circulatory System Diseases

• Artherosclerosis: Increased LDL compositions in coronary arteries and other arteries due to consuming high amounts of saturated fatty acids
• Hypertension: Smoking or mental stress
• Hypotension: Nutrient deficiencies
• Thrombosis: A blood clot

Metabolism

• All biochemical reactions occurring inside the living body

Catabolism

• Breaking down of complex substance to form simple substances.
• Respiration (C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + energy)

Anabolism

• Formation of complex substance using simple substances.
• Photosynthesis (CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2)

Excretory System

• Removal of metabolic waste

Excretory Materials

• Waste produced during metabolism

Excretion

• Removing excretory materials, produced during metabolism, from the body

Excretory Organs

• Lungs: Remove carbon dioxide, water vapour in exhaled air
• Skin: Removes urea, uric acid, water, salts in sweat
• Kidney: Removes urea, uric acid, water, salts in urine

Urinary System Parts

• Renal artery
• Renal vein
• Kidney
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra

Nephron

• Structural and functional unit of the kidney

Nephron Structures

• Collecting duct
• Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
• Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
• Afferent arteriole
• Efferent arteriole
• Glomerulus
• Bowman's capsule
• Loop of Henle
• Renal artery
• Renal vein

Urine Formation Steps

Ultrafiltration

• Occurs as the afferent arteriole, which is larger in diameter than the efferent arteriole, create high pressure on glomerulus. 
• Some substances from the glomerulus will enter the Bowman's capsule as ultra fitration leaving glomerular residue(BBC,WBC, platelets, plasma protein( ,except protein)

Selective Reabsorption

• Happens in PCT, some substances goes from the gromelar filtrate blacks into the blood capillary, 90% water, 100% glucose most of the amino acids, Vitamins minerals ,Drugs, Urea, Uric acid. 
• The remaining is glomerular filtrate. 

Tubular Secretion

• Excess substances goes into loop
• Substances like  Urea , Uric acid, creatinine, H+, K+, Na+, NHA, HCO3. 
• Then finally urine goes into collecting duct.

Absorption and Secretion

• Selective Reabsorption: 90% water, 100% Glucose, most of the amino acids, Vitamins, minerals, Drugs, UricAcid
• Secretion into Tubule: Urea, K+, Uric acid, Na, NH, HCO3

Excretory System Diseases

• Renal failure: infections by microorganisms
• Nephritis: nephrons
• Calculi: Kidney in bladder

Coordination and Homeostasis

• Stimulus: A change occurs
• Receptor: Organ identifies stimulus

NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Nervous, Chocrine Endocrine system

Nervous System actions

• Response: The reaction given to stimulus.
• Effector: The organ that brings out response.
• Irritability: The ability to respond to particular stimulus.
• coordination: The changes that occur inside the body when you bring out a response for a particular stimulus. 

Structural and Functional Units Of The Nerves System

• Neurons 

Three types of structure

• Sensory neuron: transmits nerve impulses a sense organs to central nervous system
• Motor neuron: transmits neive impulses from central nervous system to effectors
• Interneuron: transmits neve impulses from sensory neuron to motor neuton

Structures

• Brain: Cranium
• Spinal Cord: Vertebral Column
• Cerebrospinal fluid is secreted by meninges
• Prevents sudden body movements
• Provides nourishment
• Identifies temp

Cell which connects Neuron

• Neurogea 

Cerebral Matters

• Exterior of brain: Grey matters
• Interior of brain: White matter
• Spinal cord. Exterior of spinal cord: White matter. Interiors of spinal cord: Grey matter

Structural and Functional parts of the Brain

1. Cerebrum-Perception of stimulus Touch control advance thinking
2. Cerebullum: controls posture and voluntary muscle movements
3. Medulla Oblongata: Control the rate of respiration ,respiration, vomiting 

Spinal cord function

• Reflex action

Homeostasis

• Maintaining constant internal environment

Cranial and Spinal Reflex

• Gravid Reflex; swallowing, Coughing, and Sheezing and yawning
• Spinal reflex: taking the hands due to heat/ Lifting the leg autway from nail

Write the refracts for the following.

• Pain to body/ Skin, sensory Neuron, spinal cord, Motor Neuron And Muscles
• Production of siliva/ tongue,senory ,Mendila obligate, Motoro Nuerun to GLands

Sympathetic System and Parasymphathetic systems.

• Sympathetic system:Pupils will dilate/Heart beat Increase/Rate of respeiration increase/adrenaline hormone witl start
• System Parasymthatic :pupis witl retax ,heart beat uitl decrease ,rat of Respiations wil decrese

What is the functional unit of the nervous system

• Reflect Arc