Government and Economics

• Congressional oversight refers to the power of Congress to oversee and check the activities of the executive branch.
• An iron triangle is a close relationship between Congress, activists, and the bureaucracy working together to achieve shared goals.
• Deflation is economically harmful, while inflation decreases the value of money.
• A national deficit is a snapshot of when a government spends more than it receives in revenue.
• National debt is the total amount a government owes due to accumulated deficits.
• Political linkage connects the people to their government through entities like the media.

Healthcare Programs

• Medicare is a government-funded health insurance program for people over 65 or those with disabilities, financed through taxes.
• Medicaid provides healthcare assistance to individuals below a certain income level, jointly funded by state and federal governments, with income eligibility determined by states.

Selective Incorporation and the Bill of Rights

• Selective incorporation involves deciding on a case-by-case basis which parts of the Bill of Rights apply to the states.
• The "rule of four" dictates that at least four Supreme Court justices must agree to hear a case.
• Stare decisis is the legal principle of upholding previous court decisions.

Influencing Court Decisions

• Interest groups can file a stare decisis to influence the court's decision.
• Article 1, Section 8 grants Congress its powers, including the elastic clause.

Due Process and Civil Rights

• Due process ensures that the accused receive all legal and constitutional protections.
• The 14th Amendment extends due process to all individuals and issues, ensuring equal protection.
• The 14th Amendment applies free speech to corporations, building on the 5th Amendment's application to federal issues.
• Civil rights prevent discrimination, while civil liberties protect basic rights and freedoms.
• Incorporation doctrine explains how the Constitution is interpreted.
• The 5th and 14th Amendments, along with selective incorporation, are related.

Religion and Government

• The Establishment Clause prohibits government involvement with religion.
• The Free Exercise Clause protects citizens' rights to practice their religion without government interference, though regulation is allowed if necessary.
• Lemon v. Kurtzman established the Lemon Test, stating that federal funding for religious schools is permissible if it does not promote religious teaching.

Constitutional Amendments

• Amendments 7, 8, 9, 10, and 12 address various legal and governmental procedures.
• Amendment 12 ensures that the President and Vice President are elected as a team.
• Amendment 13 abolished slavery, Amendment 14 protects rights, and Amendment 15 prohibits race-based voting restrictions.
• The 18th Amendment banned alcohol possession, sale, and purchase, while the 21st Amendment repealed the 18th Amendment, bringing back alcohol.
• Amendment 22 limits the president to two terms.
• Amendment 23 grants Washington, D.C., three electoral college votes, expanding democratic participation.
• Amendment 25 details the process by which the Vice President and a majority of the Cabinet can remove a President deemed unfit to serve.

Civil Rights Movement

• The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) practiced civil disobedience, led by Martin Luther King Jr.
• The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) worked to register Black voters and improve Black education.

Historical Discrimination

• Black Codes sought to prolong conditions of bondage.
• Jim Crow laws segregated races and prohibited interracial marriage.

Overturning Supreme Court Rulings

• Supreme Court rulings can be overturned by adding another amendment to the Constitution.
• De jure refers to actual laws, while de facto describes what happens in reality.
• The president cannot make laws, only Congress can. The president can propose amendments to the constitution.

14th Amendment Clauses

• The 14th Amendment includes clauses on due process, equal protection under the law, and birthright citizenship.
• The 4th Amendment protects against unreasonable search and seizure.

Landmark Supreme Court Cases

• Citizens United v. FEC: Corporations possess free speech rights, raising the constitutional question of whether corporations have the right to free speech.
• Gideon v. Wainwright: Guarantees the right to an attorney, even at the state level, through selective incorporation.
• Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional.
• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Affirmed federal supremacy and broadened Congress's powers under the Necessary and Proper Clause.
• Schenck v. United States (1919): Introduced the "clear and present danger" test for free speech limits.
• Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Overturned "separate but equal" and mandated school desegregation, marking a crucial civil rights victory.
• Baker v. Carr (1962): Opened federal courts to redistricting issues, establishing "one man, one vote."
• Engel v. Vitale (1962): Banned mandatory prayer in public schools, based on the First Amendment's establishment clause.
• Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Ensured the right to legal counsel in state criminal trials, extending Sixth Amendment protections.
• Tinker v. Des Moines (1969): Protected students' right to symbolic speech in public schools.
• New York Times Co. v. United States (1971): Reinforced freedom of the press, preventing the government from blocking the publication of the Pentagon Papers.
• Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972): Upheld the right of Amish children to avoid public education based on religious freedom.
• Roe v. Wade (1973): Established a woman's right to abortion under the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause.
• Shaw v. Reno (1993): Declared racial gerrymandering unconstitutional, ensuring fairness in redistricting.
• United States v. Lopez (1995): Restricted Congress's power under the Commerce Clause, deeming federal law enforcement in a local school zone unconstitutional.
• McDonald v. City of Chicago (2010): Applied the Second Amendment's right to bear arms to state and local governments.
• Citizens United v. FEC (2010): Permitted unlimited spending by corporations and unions in political campaigns.