Gilded Age: Exploitation and Unification

• Review for First Exam

Exploitation and Unification in the Gilded Age

• The Gilded Age witnessed a significant movement towards unification and the establishment of a national economy, which fundamentally altered the landscape of America.
• This shift stemmed from various factors, including the establishment of a national currency which facilitated trade and commerce, along with extensive industrial and technological expansion that modernized production processes and created new job opportunities.
• However, this era was also marked by rampant exploitation and a profound materialistic ethos that prioritized wealth accumulation over ethical considerations.

Exploitation of American Indians

• The exploitation of American Indians was primarily fueled by the insatiable desire for land and natural resources such as minerals and timber.
• The lives and cultures of Great Plains Indians, who relied on horses, buffalo, and unimpeded access to open land for their survival, were tragically decimated through encroachment by white settlers.
• This westward expansion catalyzed the emergence of mining corporations, large-scale ranching operations, and extensive agricultural enterprises that further marginalized Indigenous populations.
• The Dawes Act of 1887 sought to assimilate Native Americans into American society by promoting voluntary removal from their reservation lands; however, it ultimately failed to recognize the complexities of Indigenous identities and livelihoods.
• Assumptions underpinning the Dawes Act suggested that Native Americans were eager to adopt an American way of life and integrate into mainstream society, an assumption that disregarded deeply held cultural traditions.
• In a notable response to these injustices, American Indians rallied against government policies during the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876, where Sioux warriors led by Sitting Bull successfully defeated General George Custer and his troops, marking a rare and significant triumph over U.S. military forces.
• This decisive Indian victory intensified U.S. interest in the Black Hills territory, known for its gold deposits, leading to further conflicts and the eventual displacement of Indigenous peoples.
• Despite initial victories, Indigenous peoples faced swift repercussions, with many being forced onto reservations where their traditional ways of life were further undermined and restricted.
• Following the American-Indian wars, there was a concerted push for assimilation as a way of life for the remaining Native American populations, but even today, the circumstances for Indigenous communities remain challenging and often precarious.

Exploitation of African Americans

• Following the Civil War, notable progress was made towards the recognition of African-American civil rights through the passage of the 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery in the United States.
• This was complemented by the 14th Amendment, which granted citizenship rights to African Americans, as well as the 15th Amendment, which aimed to secure the right to vote for African American men.
• However, this initial progress was short-lived, as restrictive measures such as grandfather clauses, literacy tests, and poll taxes were implemented to circumvent these rights and effectively disenfranchise many African Americans.
• The landmark Supreme Court case of Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 upheld the principle of "separate but equal," thereby legitimizing a system of racial segregation that persisted for decades, reflecting the deep-rooted systemic racism entrenched in American society.
• Tragically, incidents of racial violence became a grim reality, exemplified by the lynching of Jesse Washington in Waco, Texas, purportedly due to accusations of raping a white woman, highlighting the lethal consequences of racial tensions.
• Prominent African American leaders emerged during this era, such as Booker T. Washington, who promoted economic self-sufficiency and advocated for a more gradual approach to civil rights, encouraging Black Americans to improve their status through hard work and industry.
• In contrast, W.E.B. Du Bois championed a more assertive political engagement and emphasized the importance of higher education and civil rights activism, advocating for an immediate and unwavering pursuit of equality.

Exploitation of the West

• The exploitation of land and resources in the Western United States took place against the backdrop of significant events such as the California Gold Rush, the discovery of the Comstock Lode in Nevada, and the unrest in the Black Hills, all of which drew countless settlers and entrepreneurs seeking wealth.
• One of the pivotal pieces of legislation that shaped this land exploitation was the 1862 Homestead Act, which offered heads of households 160 acres of land for a mere $10, thus incentivizing westward migration and settlement.
• To further facilitate this expansion, the U.S. government provided land grants designed to assist railroad companies in constructing lines that would connect the eastern and western parts of the country, improving transportation and commerce.
• The swift population increase in the West led to such rapid environmental and social changes that by 1890, the U.S. Census Office declared the frontier officially closed, marking a significant moment in American history.

The Technological Transformation of the United States

• The United States underwent a profound technological transformation during the Gilded Age, influenced by a combination of several key factors that propelled the nation towards modernization.
• This transformation included financial investments from abroad that invigorated domestic industries, an influx of immigrant inventors who brought invaluable skills, and the socio-political landscape reshaped by the end of the Civil War, which allowed for a renewed focus on technological progress.
• Significant advancements were made in the railroad industry, which not only improved safety but also enhanced the efficiency of transportation networks across the nation, facilitating business operations and the movement of goods.
• The development and expansion of railroads played a crucial role in stimulating national economic growth, serving as the backbone of trade between regions.
• This era also saw significant growth in other industries, particularly steel, petroleum, communications, and the burgeoning automobile sector, all of which contributed to reshaping American society.
• However, these advancements did not come without consequences, as industrial activities led to environmental degradation, manifesting in forms such as acid rain, air pollution, water pollution, and a growing awareness of global warming as a byproduct of industrial emissions.
• During this time, notable figures in big business, such as J.P. Morgan, Andrew Carnegie, and John D. Rockefeller, utilized strategic business practices including both vertical and horizontal integration to consolidate control over their respective industries.

Big Business

• The industries that emerged during this period were diverse, encompassing railroads, steel production, petroleum extraction and refinement, aluminum manufacturing, communications, electricity generation, and agribusiness.
• The prevailing economic philosophy among these big businesses was one of laissez-faire economics, favoring minimal government intervention in the marketplace while allowing enterprise to flourish.
• Methods like horizontal integration, where firms control one or two stages of the manufacturing process, and vertical integration, which entails controlling all stages from production to sale, were key strategies that helped maintain monopolistic practices.
• Individuals like John D. Rockefeller became synonymous with the petroleum industry, where his company dominated the refining sector, while Andrew Carnegie’s steel empire controlled everything from mining to distribution.
• The public increasingly perceived these powerful figures and their corporations as threats to the economy and democracy, leading to growing concerns about monopolistic practices and economic disparities.
• In response to these sentiments, political and social critiques emerged, including Edward Bellamy's utopian novel "Looking Backward," which envisioned a more equitable society free from the malpractices of unchecked capitalism.
• Social Darwinism gained traction during this time, a controversial ideology that applied concepts from Darwinian evolution to justify social stratification and economic competition among humans.

Industries

• The roots of industrialization in the United States were heavily influenced by practices and innovations introduced in Germany, which had developed a robust industrial sector.
• By the dawn of the 20th century, the technological transformation had firmly established manufacturing as the primary engine of economic growth in the nation.
• The railroad industry saw considerable advancements throughout the 19th century, largely supported by government initiatives that encouraged expansion and improvement.
• Post-Civil War, railroads played an instrumental role in bolstering economic growth by facilitating the movement of goods and people throughout the expanding United States.
• Innovators like Henry Bessemer and William Kelly revolutionized steel production by developing processes that utilized carbon, thereby markedly increasing efficiency and output.
• The creation of aluminum, another vital material during this period, was made possible through advances in electricity, further demonstrating the connection between energy and industrial progress.
• The discovery of petroleum in Pennsylvania catalyzed the growth of an entirely new industry that would come to dominate the American economy.
• Innovations in communication technology, epitomized by the telegraph, transformed how people connected with one another, while Alexander Graham Bell's invention of the telephone in 1876 brought voice communication into the modern era.
• Thomas Edison played a pivotal role in the development of the direct current (DC) electrical system, while Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse advanced a more efficient alternating current (AC) system.

Effects of Industrialization

• The industrialization process led to significant environmental consequences, including acid rain, which was identified by Robert Angus Smith and traced back to the combustion of coal that released carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, influencing atmospheric conditions.
• Air pollution emerged as a dire by-product of coal combustion, contributing to health issues and environmental degradation within growing industrial cities.
• During this period, an increasing awareness of global warming began to take shape, as the accumulation of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere became associated with industrial emissions.

Responses to Technological Transformations

• From 1870 to 1900, workers across the nation endured poor living conditions and faced consistently low wages, prompting unrest and dissatisfaction.
• In response to the exploitation and challenges they faced, labor groups started organizing into unions aimed at challenging the authority of big businesses and improving their working conditions.
• The mass immigration of individuals seeking better opportunities also prompted government restrictions aimed at controlling the growing immigrant population.
• Life for immigrants was marred by difficulties stemming from labor exploitation, challenges associated with assimilation into American culture, and the struggle to navigate poor living conditions in overcrowded urban environments.
• Throughout this transformative era, cities underwent significant changes, evolving rapidly into bustling urban centers amid the pressures of industrialization.
• Reform movements emerged in response to the myriad issues presented by the Gilded Age, with advocates aiming for social change and improvement.

Responses to Changes Brought by Technological Transformations

• Urban political leaders, often referred to as political bosses, recognized the importance of addressing working-class issues to secure votes and maintain their influence.
• Christian reformers, associated with the Social Gospel movement, sought to apply Christ's teachings to address pressing social problems, emphasizing the moral obligation to aid the disadvantaged.
• Jane Addams arose as a significant figure in advocating for immigrants in Chicago, founding Hull House, which became a model for the settlement house movement aimed at providing social services to underserved communities.

Responses to Big Business

• The Knights of Labor emerged as a notable union that aimed to unite skilled and unskilled workers and advocated for shared ownership of the means of production, seeking broader worker solidarity.
• Despite some unions fostering peaceful and orderly environments, they were often scapegoated for violence, as illustrated by the Haymarket Riot, which resulted in public backlash against organized labor.
• The American Federation of Labor (AFL) formed as an organization predominantly representing skilled workers, taking a pragmatic approach to labor relations.
• The AFL prioritized promoting better working conditions, higher wages, and other practical reforms that would directly benefit its members.
• In response to the growing labor movement, big businesses established entities like the National Civic Federation in 1900, aimed at addressing labor issues and creating a safer working environment for employees.

Effects of Industrialization

• The alarming rates of water pollution spurred the need for the development of water purification systems, aiming to protect public health amid industrial runoff.
• Prior to 1890, the majority of immigrants to the United States hailed from Northern and Western Europe, fleeing economic hardship, political strife, and religious persecution, which prompted legislative responses such as the 1924 quota law that restricted New Immigration into the country.
• Immigrants often faced poverty, enduring low wages and being crammed into urban slums characterized by dismal living conditions.
• Newly arrived immigrants were frequently pressured to relinquish their nationality, language, and cultural traditions in order to assimilate into American society.
• Nativist sentiments emerged in reaction to immigration, particularly directed against Catholics and the working class, leading to widespread xenophobia and discrimination.
• The realities of poor living conditions amid overcrowding and the spread of disease in burgeoning cities were compounded by architectural innovations such as skyscrapers, which transformed urban landscapes with their steel frameworks and elevators.

Education, Science, and Culture in Late Nineteenth Century

• During the latter part of the 19th century, primary and secondary education experienced significant expansion, as progressive reformers challenged the prevailing educational models and sought improvements in public schooling systems.
• Higher education also saw notable growth during this time, aided by government support and a burgeoning interest in applying European educational models to American institutions.
• Scientific advancements of the period shifted focus more toward theoretical sciences, largely receiving government backing that facilitated research and development.
• The art world underwent a transformation as realism began to supplant romanticism, influencing artistic expression across literature, visual arts, and architecture.

Education, Science, and Culture in Late Nineteenth Century

• Prior to the 1860s, public education was largely confined to the northeastern United States, only emerging in the Southern states after the Reconstruction era.
• Students in earlier school models were often passive recipients of knowledge, focusing predominantly on moral lessons rather than fostering critical thinking.
• Progressive educator John Dewey advocated for an unstructured and active learning environment, emphasizing experiential learning as a way to engage students.
• The Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 provided federal land grants to establish agricultural and engineering colleges, significantly impacting the landscape of higher education.
• As universities evolved, there was a noticeable shift away from rote memorization and religious control, promoting more dynamic and modern educational philosophies.
• The establishment of specialized graduate schools increased, drawing inspiration from successful models in Germany, which prioritized advanced studies.
• Scientific contributions during this era flourished, yielding transformative discoveries such as Albert Michelson's measurement of the speed of light and the Wright Brothers' innovations in aviation technology, exemplifying applied scientific research.
• The literary and artistic movement of realism emphasized truth and authenticity in representation, contributing to a broader cultural narrative that sought to portray life accurately.
• Examples of this new realism can be observed in literary works such as Mark Twain's "Huckleberry Finn," and in the art of Thomas Eakins, who focused on depicting real-life experiences and human anatomy truthfully.
• Architect Louis Sullivan became known for his principle of "form follows function," emphasizing the idea that buildings should be designed to serve their intended purposes efficiently.

Politics in the Gilded Age

• The political landscape of the Gilded Age was characterized by the Republican party, largely composed of Protestants of Anglo-Saxon descent, who were often viewed as moralists with a reform-oriented agenda.
• Conversely, the Democratic party garnered support from various groups including Catholics and diverse Protestant denominations, advocating for laissez-faire economics and minimal government intervention while maintaining a tolerance towards immigrant populations.
• The balance of power between the two major parties was so pronounced that electoral contests often hinged more on personal character and integrity than substantive policy issues.
• Progressive reformers of the era, such as Jane Addams and the advocates of the Social Gospel movement, actively sought political solutions to the complex problems facing urban communities.
• Additionally, the Populist party emerged from a backdrop of widespread dissatisfaction among rural citizens, advocating for the interests of small farmers and laborers against economic monopolies and inequalities.

Populism

• Populism became a powerful movement rooted in the interests of small farmers, merchants, and members of the Knights of Labor, predominantly hailing from the Southern and Midwestern U.S., underpinned by evangelical principles.
• This movement was significantly influenced by labor movements that pushed back against the burgeoning industrial society and the rise of agribusiness, culminating in a desire to return to an agrarian way of life.
• Key issues driving the Populist agenda included concerns over high shipping rates, fluctuating land prices, the failures of crops, and various economic pressures stemming from burdensome mortgages.

Populist Program-The Farmer's Alliance

• The Populist movement sought to alleviate the economic burdens on farmers and low-income individuals by advocating for a graduated income tax, which would disproportionately relieve the tax burden from the lower classes.
• The movement also called for the expansion of currency to allow for the inclusion of both silver and gold, which they believed would help stabilize the economy and improve the financial situation of farmers.
• Additionally, the movement pushed for direct election of senators as stated in the 17th amendment, along with other democratic reforms such as initiatives, referendums, and recall provisions to enhance participatory governance.
• In terms of commerce, they advocated for immigration restrictions and the establishment of a national railroad and telegraph system that would bolster connectivity while dismantling monopolistic practices.
• Despite their aspirations, many viewed the movement's proposals as too radical for the time, particularly due to the intertwining of political and religious beliefs.
• The Populist party eventually merged with the Democrats in 1896, resulting in a decline as a distinct third party within the political spectrum.

Economic Crisis and Political Turmoil, 1893-1896

• The economic turmoil characterized by the depression of 1893 acted as a catalyst for significant political change, particularly within the Democratic party.
• As the depression took hold, many Democrats shifted their alignment and joined the Populist party in the hope of addressing the nation's most pressing economic challenges.
• The platform adopted in 1896 became heavily focused on currency reform as a pivotal solution to economic instability.

Election of 1896

• The election of 1896 marked a political reversal, as Democrats moved away from their urban base and aligned themselves more closely with agrarian reformers and Populist ideals.
• William Jennings Bryan emerged as a prominent nominee on the Democratic ticket, advocating for the interests of the working class and small farmers.
• To counter Bryan, the Republicans nominated William McKinley, who ultimately prevailed, gaining control over the federal government and implementing stringent economic policies aimed at budgetary restraint.
• The election proved to be remarkably close, with McKinley receiving approximately 7 million votes to Bryan's 6.5 million, illustrating the deeply divided political landscape.

William Jennings Bryan, Cross of Gold Speech

• In his famous "Cross of Gold" speech, delivered at the Democratic National Convention in 1896, Bryan passionately asserted that the fight for the gold standard would ultimately betray the interests of the nation’s laborers, signaling a commitment to advocate for the working class while challenging economic inequality.
• Bryan’s rhetoric focused on the need to protect producers and workers, declaring that they would not "crucify mankind upon a cross of gold," effectively galvanizing sentiment against what he deemed an oppressive economic system.

Why the Election of 1896 Matters

• The election of 1896 signified a watershed moment where industrial America triumphed over agrarian interests, illustrating the shifting allegiances within American politics.
• This election highlighted the inherent challenges faced by third parties operating within a dual-party system, as their impact often diminished in the absence of broad electoral support.
• For a political party to achieve success, it must cultivate a wide base of support among an engaged electorate, a reality that shaped the trajectories of both major parties.
• The Republican party, characterized by its pragmatic approach, adjusted to electoral dynamics by appealing to key constituencies, thus obtaining a wide margin of victory.
• This election laid the groundwork for subsequent progressive reforms in the 20th century, including movements for electing state senators and the establishment of income tax as a means of addressing sociopolitical challenges.
• Additionally, the election marked a critical transition in party platforms, with Democrats increasingly advocating for worker welfare and social justice while Republicans remained focused on sustaining business interests.

Key Takeaways

• The Populists articulated demands for the direct election of senators, currency expansion, and immigration restrictions as part of their broader socio-economic agenda.
• Critical issues surrounding railroads, agricultural struggles, and banking practices based on mortgages and interest rates fueled the grievances expressed by the agrarian populace.
• Inflation emerged as a key goal of the Populist movement, as supporters advocated for the dual use of silver and gold as a means to enhance profitability for farmers and revive the economy.
• In the aftermath of the tumultuous 1896 election, the long-standing equilibrium between the Democratic and Republican parties disintegrated, reshaping the political landscape and setting the stage for modern American politics.

Explore the Gilded Age's unification and exploitation. The era saw a national economy emerge via industrial expansion. However, it also led to the exploitation of American Indians due to the desire for land and minerals, impacting their way of life.