Germany's Political and Economic Landscape

Germany faces issues like recession, government spending cuts, and challenges arising from reunification.

East Germany had a centrally planned (socialist) economy, while West Germany had a free market economy.

Aspects of unified Germany's social system include economics, religion, gender equality, and the presence of minorities.

Germany has a federal system with two houses of parliament (Bundestag and Bundesrat) and a Chancellor that leads a cabinet elected by the Bundestag.

Post-unification political culture differed between East and West Germany, with the West having a more established democratic tradition.

Political socialization is the process of learning political attitudes and beliefs. Sources include family, education, and media.

Interest groups in Germany represent various societal interests (e.g. business, labor). The influence of these groups on German politics is significant.

Political parties play a strong role in Germany due to features of the political system and the role of popular vote for elections and other factors.

In Germany, multiple parties represented in the Bundestag lead to more diverse perspectives and policy considerations. However, this can also affect decision-making processes.

Federal policymaking involves various actors, including the Bundestag, Bundesrat, Chancellor, and Cabinet; along with the President, courts, and other state officials.

Germany's government produces various policy outputs (e.g., laws, programs, regulations).

German government funding comes from various sources, such as taxation and government revenue.

Germany faces policy challenges including economic struggles, social issues related to unification, and multiculturalism.

The Weimar Republic (1919-1933) was Germany's first democratic government following World War I.

The Third Reich (1933-1945) was an authoritarian regime in Germany led by Adolf Hitler.

After World War II, Germany was divided into zones of occupation by Allied powers (including Soviet and Western powers).

High levels of political engagement in West and East Germany, including voting, activism, and interest group activity.

Political parties play a crucial role in German politics, shaping the government and being integral to the representative democracy.

An electoral system where the number of seats a party gets in the legislature roughly reflects its percentage of the vote.

An electoral system combining elements of proportional representation and single-member districts.

A major German political party generally viewed as conservative, appealing to a broad range of voters.

A German political party typically representing working-class interests and advocating for liberal policies.

Democratic culture in West Germany contrasted with communist values in East Germany, influencing political engagement and thinking.

The system of government in Russia before the 1917 revolution, characterized by absolute rule of the Tsar (emperor) and a strong emphasis on Orthodox Christianity.

The overthrow of the Tsarist regime in Russia, leading to the establishment of the Soviet Union under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin.

The political and economic system established in Russia after the Communist Revolution, characterized by a centralized communist government and a centrally planned economy.

The leader of the Bolshevik Party who played a key role in the Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Soviet Union.

The dictator of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953, known for his totalitarian rule and widespread repression.

The last leader of the Soviet Union, responsible for major reforms such as glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring), which ultimately led to the collapse of the USSR.

A policy of openness and transparency introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev, leading to increased freedom of speech and press in the Soviet Union.

A policy of economic and political restructuring introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev, aimed at reforming the Soviet system and making it more efficient.

A situation where a country heavily reliant on the export of natural resources experiences economic and political instability.

A situation where a country experiences a shrinking population and an aging population, often due to factors like low birth rates and high death rates.

The current constitution of Russia, adopted in 1993, establishing a semi-presidential system with separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

The head of state in Russia, with significant power over the government and armed forces.

The head of government in Russia, responsible for day-to-day administration and economic policy.

The lower house of the Russian parliament, responsible for initiating legislation and approving the budget.

The upper house of the Russian parliament, representing the regions and having the power to approve or reject legislation.

A powerful law enforcement agency in Russia with wide-ranging responsibilities, comparable to prosecuting attorneys in the US.

The highest court in Russia, responsible for reviewing the constitutionality of laws and government actions.

The process by which individuals learn about politics and develop their political values and beliefs, often through family, education, and media.

The collective benefits that come from social connections and trust within a community, playing a vital role in civic engagement and political participation.

The process by which individuals and groups express their interests and demands to the government, often through lobbying, protests, or voting.

A non-profit organization that operates independently from the government and works on various issues like social justice, environmental protection, or humanitarian aid.

A system where organized groups (e.g., unions, business associations) play a significant role in making and implementing public policy, often working closely with the government.

A political system where a single party holds a dominant position, effectively controlling the government and limiting the influence of other parties.

A rapid transition from a centrally planned economy to a market economy, often involving privatization and deregulation, sometimes leading to economic instability.

The transfer of ownership of state-owned assets (businesses, industries) to private individuals or companies.

A principle that everyone, including those in power, is subject to the law and should be treated equally before the law.

Dishonest or fraudulent conduct by those in power, often involving bribery, embezzlement, or abuse of power for personal gain.

The collective of nations and international organizations that operate on a global scale, often working together on issues like peace, security, and economic development.

The 1917 uprising that overthrew Tsarist rule in Russia and led to the establishment of the Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks.

The lower house of the Russian parliament, responsible for approving legislation, approving the budget, and holding the prime minister accountable.

The Russian court system has a single, unified hierarchy with federal courts at all levels. The Supreme Commercial Court is the highest appellate court, providing guidance to lower courts.

The Ministry of Justice oversees the court system in Russia, but it has no authority over the procuracy (prosecuting attorneys).

The Constitutional Court has the power to review the constitutionality of laws and actions of the government. This power of judicial review is a key aspect of Russia's legal framework.

Advocates are lawyers in Russia, comparable to defense attorneys in the United States. They represent clients in legal proceedings.

Russian political culture is a mix of democratic values, a strong belief in a powerful state, and some disillusionment with recent reforms. There's also a nostalgia for the old order.

Social capital is low in Russia, with limited participation in civic activities and weak intermediate associations. This negatively impacts political engagement.

The process of how individuals gain positions of power in Russia involves a mix of career paths, unlike the Soviet era, where the Communist Party controlled everything.

Interest groups in Russia are growing, but the system is still a mix of corporatism (strong government-group relations) and statism (government control).

Russia has transitioned from a multi-party system to one dominated by a single party, which controls most of the government and the political process.

Russia has a lot of natural resources, but this hasn't always translated into economic prosperity. This is often termed the 'resource curse'.

Nigeria is currently experiencing its longest period of civilian rule in history, starting in 1999 with the election of Olusegun Obasanjo as president.

Nigeria faces various challenges to its democracy, including governance failures, constitutional authority disputes, and intensifying divisions along ethnic, religious, and regional lines.

The Nigerian population is increasingly skeptical about democracy due to electoral violence, persistent inequalities, recent rebellions, and failures of government performance.

Nigeria transitioned to democracy in 1999 with the election of Olusegun Obasanjo and the establishment of a new democratic legislature.

Umaru Musa Yar'Adua was elected president in 2007. A constitutional crisis occurred when he became ill and disappeared from public view in 2009, raising questions about power transfer.

When Vice President Goodluck Jonathan became president after Yar'Adua's death in 2011, it violated an informal power rotation arrangement between the north and south, causing tension and violence.

Nigerians are frustrated by the failure of democracy to improve their lives. Despite economic growth, basic needs like education, healthcare, and infrastructure remain inadequate.

Since 1999, Nigeria has experienced a decline in power, making it difficult and expensive to attract investments, hindering the country's economic development.

Income in Nigeria is significantly lower than in developed countries like the U.S.

Major challenges to democracy include rampant corruption in the public sector and the rise of the violent extremist group Boko Haram, operating mainly in the northeast.

Muhammadu Buhari, a former military dictator, was elected president in 2015, promising to tackle corruption and defeat Boko Haram.

Boko Haram, formed in 2002 by Mohammed Yusuf, rose to prominence in 2009, targeting churches, police stations, and schools, especially in northeast Nigeria.

The capture and execution of Mohammed Yusuf in 2009 escalated violence, leading to the group's radicalization. The 2014 Chibok kidnapping of nearly 300 girls is one of their most infamous acts.

The Hausa people adopted Islam by the 15th century, forming city-states in northern Nigeria.

The Fulani, pastoralists, educators, and traders, entered Hausa lands, becoming influential court advisors and eventually leading a powerful kingdom.

Usman dan Fodio, a preacher and scholar, inspired a religious and political revolt against the Hausa kings in the 19th century, establishing the Fulani caliphate in Sokoto.

Since 2011, Boko Haram's violence has killed at least 26,000 people in Nigeria, targeting government buildings, schools, and places of worship.

From a small religious group, Boko Haram has become known for its harsh tactics, including bombings and kidnappings. Their extremist ideology supports strict Islamic law.

Attacks have decreased since Buhari's presidency in 2015, but Boko Haram remains active, creating insecurity and preventing displaced people from returning home.

Ongoing corruption investigations and slow efforts to rebuild conflict-affected areas remain major challenges in Nigeria.

The concept of Nigeria, including its boundaries and name, was imposed by British colonizers in 1914.

Understanding precolonial Africa is crucial to grasping Nigeria's complex history and cultural diversity.

From the 1000 to 1200s, Hausa people formed city states in northern Nigeria, influenced by Islam by the 15th century.

The Fulani-dominated caliphate established in Sokoto, now known as northern Nigeria, held a prominent position as the region's Muslim capital.

Intermarriage between the Hausa and Fulani groups led to a blend of their cultures, with Hausa becoming the dominant language of the north.

The Yoruba and Bini people created kingdoms in Oyo, Ife, and Benin between the 12th and 15th centuries, developing intricate political systems to limit royal power.

Britain's initial interest in West Africa was centered on trade, particularly the slave trade, which thrived during the 18th century.

The British Parliament outlawed the slave trade in 1807, and it was completely eliminated by 1850 after the British navy patrolled and intercepted slave ships.

British consuls settled along the West African coast, influencing local politics to gain commercial advantages over rival European traders.

The British negotiated treaties with local rulers, but they were unequal, increasingly favoring British interests.

Nigeria's democracy faces significant hurdles, including governance failures, disputes over constitutional authority, and rising tensions along ethnic, religious, and regional lines.

Since 1999, Nigeria has witnessed a decline in power, making it challenging and costly to attract investments, hindering economic development.

The income disparity between Nigeria and developed countries like the U.S. is significant, highlighting the vast economic gap.

Since 2011, Boko Haram violence has killed at least 26,000 people in Nigeria, targeting government buildings, schools, and places of worship.

A period of rapid economic growth in Japan after World War II, transforming the nation into one of the world's wealthiest.

During Japan's economic boom, income inequality did not significantly increase, unlike in many other rapidly developing countries.

Japan's economic miracle came to an end around 1990, followed by economic struggles and a period of stagnation.

A banking crisis emerged in the 1980s, contributing to Japan's economic woes with unemployment, deflation, and bankruptcies.

The Japanese government has implemented various measures to revive the economy, but challenges persist.

The global financial crisis of 2008-2009 further impacted Japan's already struggling economy.

An economic policy program implemented by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe, aiming to stimulate the economy through monetary easing, fiscal stimulus, and structural reforms.

The process of reducing government regulations in certain sectors of the economy.

Japan faces challenges due to its aging and shrinking population, driven by low birth rates.

A trade agreement negotiated by Japan and several other Pacific Rim countries, aimed at lowering trade barriers and fostering economic growth.

Japan has traditionally been hesitant to embrace immigration, despite the potential to address labor shortages.

The rise of China as an economic and military power has presented challenges for Japan, impacting its strategic and security considerations.

The end of the Cold War brought about a new international order, requiring countries like Japan to adjust their approaches to global challenges.

Japan has adopted a more proactive foreign policy, emphasizing cooperation, peacekeeping, and addressing issues like terrorism and nuclear proliferation.

The Jomon period in Japan, starting around 11,000 BCE, marked the development of hunter-gatherer communities using pottery.

The Yayoi period, beginning around 300 BCE, witnessed a cultural shift in Japan with the introduction of bronze, iron, and wet-field rice agriculture.

The Yamato period, from around 300 CE to 538 CE, saw the rise of the Yamato clan and the establishment of a centralized state.

Buddhism was introduced to Japan during the Yamato period, eventually becoming an influential religion in the country.

The Heian period, from 794 to 1185, was characterized by a refined court culture in Kyoto, with significant influence from Chinese culture.

The medieval period, from 1185 to 1600, was marked by frequent warfare and political instability.

The Tokugawa shogunate, established in 1600, achieved national unity and ruled from Edo (modern Tokyo) until 1868.

Under the Tokugawa shogunate, Japan closed its borders to the outside world, focusing on internal development and stability.

In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in Japan, demanding that the Tokugawa shogunate open its ports to trade with the United States.

The Meiji Restoration, in 1868, marked the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate and the return of imperial power.

The Meiji government pursued rapid modernization, aiming to catch up with the western imperial powers and abolish unequal treaties.

In early Meiji Japan, a small group of powerful figures (oligarchs) exerted significant influence over government decision-making.

The Taisho era, from 1912 to 1926, saw a period of political liberalization in Japan, with political parties gaining more influence.

Following the assassination of Prime Minister Tsuyoshi Inukai, the military gained control of the government in Japan, leading to increased militarization.

A pivotal sea battle in the Pacific War in June 1942, resulting in a decisive victory for the United States and a turning point for Japan.

After Japan's defeat in World War II, Allied forces occupied Japan, aiming to demilitarize and democratize the country.

The Allied occupation led to the creation of a new constitution for Japan, emphasizing peace, democracy, and individual rights.

The Allied occupation implemented land reform in Japan, aiming to address poverty and reduce the influence of large landowners.

The new constitution granted the right to strike and bargain collectively, promoting labor rights and unionization in Japan.

A sovereign state formed in 1801 by merging England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. It's a multinational state with a unitary political system.

The process of becoming a democracy in Britain was gradual and evolutionary, unlike many European countries that shifted between democracies and non-democracies.

A political system with one source of authority. The British Parliament is the highest decision-making body.

Transferring some power from the central government to regional bodies. Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland have elected assemblies with distinct responsibilities.

Distinct from the rest of the UK, Northern Ireland has complex identity questions due to historic Catholic-Protestant divisions and ongoing societal tensions.

A symbolic representation of the state, encompassing the government, officials, Parliament, and key institutions.

A set of laws, customs, conventions, and judicial pronouncements that govern the country without a single codified document.

Essential tasks of the Prime Minister: winning elections, media campaigning, patronage, parliamentary performance, and policy-making.

Senior ministers appointed by the Prime Minister to lead government departments. They must be members of the House of Commons or Lords.

The success or failure of ministers depends on their ability to promote their department's interests in Parliament, media, and Whitehall (government bureaucracy).

The party with the majority of seats in the House of Commons forms the government, while the party/parties with fewer seats form the opposition.

A vote on a bill or motion that signifies confidence in the government. If defeated, the government falls.

Members of Parliament from the majority party generally vote as instructed by their party leadership.

The upper house of Parliament, historically composed of hereditary peers. It now has a limited role in amending and delaying legislation.

Established in 2009 as the highest judicial authority, replacing the House of Lords. It can decide legal disputes but not declare laws unconstitutional.

A government formed when no single party wins a majority of seats in Parliament. Major decisions require agreement among coalition partners.

A strong belief in the rule of law, a sense of shared history, and a reliance on custom and tradition as sources of legitimacy.

The process of learning about politics and forming political attitudes and values. Factors include family, education, class, and media.

Ways individuals participate in politics, including voting, signing petitions, contacting politicians, and volunteering in party activities.

A two-party system has two dominant parties, while a multi-party system has numerous parties that compete for power.

An electoral system where the candidate with the most votes wins, even if they don't have a majority. This often results in a two-party system.

Political power concentrated in the central government, with nationwide authority to make decisions.

The implementation of policies is often handled by local authorities and non-governmental organizations, despite centralized decision-making.

Power is shared between central and local governments. Elected officials in local councils handle some aspects of policy.

Elected bodies responsible for local services, such as education, housing, and waste management.

In a coalition government, major decisions require negotiation and agreement among the participating parties.

The government's ability to deliver public goods and services effectively depends on laws, money, and personnel.

A major component of British government spending, covering social welfare programs.

The British government raises revenue through taxes on income, consumption, and value-added goods.

Public employees are essential to administer laws and deliver public services. They are part of the government's human capital.