George Cayley's Coin and Aerodynamics

George Cayley

• He theorized on aerodynamics, addressing velocity, wing loads, bending movements, and the need for lightness and strength.
• He foresaw streamlining and determined that a cambered wing was vital for flight.
• He is known as the Father of Aerodynamics

Cayley Coin

• In 1799, Sir George Cayley (1773-1857) designed an airplane with a fixed wing, separate propulsion, and a tail for stability.
• His design was revolutionary as he separated lift and propulsion.
• The wings would not generate the power by flapping.
• Cayley envisioned a power source independent of the wings.
• He introduced the concept of camber, or curvature, of the wing.
• Cayley engraved his design on a coin known as Cayley's Coin
• One side showed his flying machine
• The other included a diagram of the four forces of flight: lift, weight, drag, and thrust.
• Thrust and drag work in opposition to one another.
• Lift and weight work in opposition to each other.
• Cayley articulated that an object remains in the air only when lift, weight, drag, and thrust are in balance.

William Henson and John Stringfellow

• John Stringfellow's challenge was to build a light steam engine for an aircraft.
• William Henson, an engineer, had a patent for an improved steam engine.
• Henson designed an airplane with a single wing, differing from Cayley's multi-wing advise.
• Henson and Stringfellow sold stock in their company to raise cash.
• Their company focused on building and operating flying machines.
• They wanted to created an international airline known as the Aerial Steam Transit Company in 1843.
• Stringfellow continued work on flight problems.
• He built a steam engine and a new model airplane with a 10-foot wingspan.
• Some historians dubbed this engine the first practical, capable one.
• A glider with the engine mounted became airborne in an 1848 test flight, going 120 feet but there was nobody onboard.
• He was never able to construct a full size airplane that could be successfully flown.
• Henson's logically conceived design showcased what an airplane should be.
• Despite unsatisfactory model tests, they made a serious attempt to fly a propeller-driven, engine-powered airplane.
• George Cayley was influenced by this machine

Alphonse Penaud

• He was one of the brilliant airplane experimenters in France preceding the Wright Brothers.
• He applied his background as a marine engineer to aeronautics.
• In 1870, he discovered the twisted rubber band as a power source for model airplanes.
• He used his invention in a workable helicopter model, which then spurred toy makers to produce rubber band driven helicopter toys.
• In 1876, he patented his design.
• Penaud was ahead of his time.
• Frustrated, discouraged, and criticized for his work he committed suicide at the age of 30
• Experiments, including the Wright Brother's would rank Penaud close to Cayley as one of the most significant 19th century aeronautical thinkers

Otto Lilienthal

• He is known as the Father of glider experiments and was a German engineer
• He and his brother Gustav noticed storks took off against the wind
• His brother later wrote: "raising against the wind might be easier than with the wind"
• Lilienthal recognized curved wings were superior to the flat ones.
• His 1889 book Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation became a classic of aeronautical aviation.
• He crashed due to his machine's instability, controllable only by human strength and agility.
• His machine's qualities were not adequate for successful sustained flight.
• Lilienthal's best achievements were to insight others who then continued to push for advancements in development of the airplane.
• He proved the superiority of curved over flat wings.
• He made the art of gliding an everyday accepted fact.
• He is regarded as one of the greatest pioneers of aviation.
• A notable misconception was his belief in flapping wings as key to aerial locomotion.
• On August 9, 1896, a sudden gust tossed him sharply upward, causing a crash.
• He died the following day from a broken spine.

Octave Chanute

• Successful civil engineer
• Approach to flight was scientific.
• He worked as president of the American Society of Civil Engineers and designed and built the Union Stock Yards in Chicago
• Aeronautics was only a hobby until he was in his mid-sixties
• He collected and wrote information on the subject.
• In 1894, he released Progress in Aviation, which talked about the history of aviation up to that point at the time.
• Unlike Lilienthal who tried to control his gliders via shifting weight, Chanute came up with a mechanism to achieve that via moving the wings.
• Chanute would implement civil engineering in a way that created strut and diagonal wire bracing.
• A best flight recorded by a pilot was 359 feet in 14 seconds.
• Chanute was convinced that further glider experiments would result in controllable aircraft powered by an engine.
• He wrote about his results in the Journal of Western Society of Engineers to invite others to expand.
• No one accepted the invite, that is until 1900, when Wright inquired about his construction materials and aircraft experiments
• Wright noted that he couldn't think of a better use of his time for a vacation
• Chanute, excited to comply with Wright's request began a relationship with the Wright Brothers
• Chanute was present when the Wright brothers were experimenting with their gliders in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina
• He felt like a proud father to the Wright Brother's and stayed invested in their efforts until 1910.
• Chanute gave the Wright Brothers guidance and inspiration.
• "They made true to his greatest wish, the hope and belief that the goal of useful airplanes could be reached"

Samuel P Langley

• He was a mathematician, astronomer and physicist
• In 1889, he went to the Smithsonian Institute
• During that time, he would publish dynamic findings and be regarded as the leading authority in aviation across the US.
• Langley's credibility and influence from his position at such a scientific institution was an influence which further led Wright in the right direction.
• His experiments consisted of the following engines: hot air, compressed air, gas, electricity, carbonic acid, and gunpowder.
• Langley needed a lightweight, high powered engine before he could achieve his goals
• Steam had the greatest possibilities, and then decided to direct a program to perfect that.
• October 7, 1903, Charles Manly, with a Cornell University degree, was the test dummy.

George Cayley, known as the Father of Aerodynamics, designed an airplane with fixed wings, separate propulsion, and a tail for stability. He introduced the concept of camber and engraved his design on a coin. The coin also depicted the four forces of flight: lift, weight, drag, and thrust.