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Questions and Answers
What is the process of determining the correct sequence of rock formations called?
Which rock type is likely to be older in a scenario where a layer of sandstone is found in contact with a mass of granite, and the granite contains small pieces of the sandstone?
What is the principle that states that groups of fossils succeed each other in a definite and determinable order?
What type of fossil provides valuable information about the food habits of ancient organisms?
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What type of unconformity occurs when older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks are separated from younger sedimentary strata?
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What can be inferred about the sequence of 5 undeformed horizontal beds of sedimentary rock?
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Who is often credited with formulating the principle of faunal/fossil succession?
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What is an alpha particle composed of?
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What is the composition of a helium atom?
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What percentage of radioactive atoms decay during one half-life?
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Which of the following is utilized in relative dating?
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What is the term for the process of an atom's nucleus spontaneous decay?
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What is the term for a gap in the rock record where the deposition of sediment has been interrupted?
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Which of the following radioactive isotopes is the most versatile for radiometric dating?
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What is the term for a layer of sedimentary rock that has been deposited without interruption and has not undergone erosion?
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Which of the following is credited with formulating the law of superposition?
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What is the term for fossils that denote particular short periods of time in the geologic past?
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If the half-life of a material X is 1000 years and you found a specimen with equal amounts of material X and material Z (the daughter product), what is the age of the specimen?
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What is formed when a tube is filled with mineral matter and preserved?
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Which principle states that fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order?
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What type of fossilization occurs when fine sediment encases the remains of an organism?
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Who is credited with formulating the principle of faunal succession?
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What is the term for the study of the remains or traces of pre-existing organisms?
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Which circumstance would enhance an organism's chances of becoming a fossil?
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What is the term for a diagram that illustrates Earth's time and divides it into units of varying magnitude?
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Which type of unconformity occurs when tilted or folded sedimentary rocks are overlain by more flat-lying strata?
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What is the process of an atom's nucleus undergoing spontaneous decay?
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Insects are sometimes fossilized in the hardened resin of ancient trees. What is this preserved resin called?
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What is the term for the process of determining the age of rocks and minerals by measuring the amount of radioactive isotopes present?
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What is the principle that states that the oldest rocks are at the bottom and the youngest rocks are at the top?
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Which of the following is an example of an inclusion?
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Why are worms rarely found in the fossil record?
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What is the term for the process of fossilization where the original material is dissolved and replaced with minerals from the surrounding environment?
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Which type of dating can be used to determine the age of a rock layer?
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How many half-lives have occurred when three-quarters of a radioactive isotope has decayed?
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Which of the following principles is used to determine the relative age of rocks?
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What is the term for a type of fossil that forms when an organism is buried in sediment and then dissolved, leaving a mold of the organism's shape?
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What is the process of fossilization where minerals precipitate out of solution and fill in the pores and empty spaces of an organism?
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Which of the following scientists is credited with formulating the principle of uniformitarianism?
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What is the term for fossils that denote particular short periods of time in the geologic past?
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What is the term for the process of determining the relative age of rocks based on the presence of fossils?
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What is the principle that states that older rocks are buried beneath younger rocks?
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What is the process of fossilization where the original material is replaced with minerals from the surrounding environment?
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Which of the following is a statement of the principle of faunal succession?
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What is the term for the gap in the rock record where the deposition of sediment has been interrupted?
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Who is credited with formulating the principle of faunal succession?
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What type of unconformity occurs when older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks are separated from younger sedimentary strata?
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Which of the following is a type of fossilization where minerals precipitate out of solution and fill in the pores and empty spaces of an organism?
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What is the primary purpose of the geologic time scale?
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What is the characteristic of conformable layers?
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Who is credited with proposing the concept of catastrophism?
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What type of radiation consists of high-energy electrons?
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What is the result of an atom's nucleus undergoing spontaneous decay?
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What is the process of fossilization where minerals precipitate out of solution?
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Who is credited with developing the principle of relative dating?
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What is the term for the study of the Earth's physical structure and composition?
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What is the term for a layer of sedimentary rock that has been deposited without interruption and has not undergone erosion?
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Which scientist is credited with formulating the principle of faunal succession?
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What is the term for the remains or traces of pre-existing organisms?
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Which type of fossil provides valuable information about the food habits of ancient organisms?
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What is the term for a diagram that illustrates Earth's time and divides it into units of varying magnitude?
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Why are worms rarely found in the fossil record?
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What is the process of an atom's nucleus undergoing spontaneous decay?
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Which of the following is an example of an inclusion?
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What is the term for the process of an atom's nucleus undergoing spontaneous decay?
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Which of the following principles states that in a undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each bed is older than the one above it and younger that the one below it?
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What is the term for the diagram that illustrates Earth's time and divides it into units of varying magnitude?
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Which of the following scientists is credited with proposing the principle that states the physical, chemical, and biological laws that operate today also operated in the geologic past?
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What is the term for the process of determining the age of rocks and minerals by measuring the amount of radioactive isotopes present?
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What is the term for the gap in the rock record where the deposition of sediment has been interrupted?
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Which of the following types of fossils forms when an organism is buried in sediment and then dissolved, leaving a mold of the organism's shape?
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What is the term for the process of fossilization where the original material is replaced with minerals from the surrounding environment?
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Which of the following radioactive isotopes is commonly used in radiometric dating?
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What is the term for the principle that states fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order?
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What type of fossil provides valuable information about the environments in which ancient organisms lived?
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What is the term for the process of determining the age of rocks and minerals by measuring the amount of radioactive isotopes present?
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What is the term for the gap in the rock record where the deposition of sediment has been interrupted?
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What is the term for a layer of sedimentary rock that has been deposited without interruption and has not undergone erosion?
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What is the term for a diagram that illustrates Earth's time and divides it into units of varying magnitude?
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What is the principle that states that older rocks are buried beneath younger rocks?
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What is the term for the process of fossilization where the original material is replaced with minerals from the surrounding environment?
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What is the term for the study of the remains or traces of pre-existing organisms?
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What is the term for the process of determining the relative age of rocks based on the position of fossils?
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Which of the following types of fossils provides valuable information about the environment in which the organism lived?
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What is the name of the principle that states that the physical, chemical, and biological laws that operate today also operated in the geologic past?
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Which of the following conditions would enhance an organism's chances of becoming a fossil?
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What is the term for the gap in the rock record where the deposition of sediment has been interrupted?
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What type of fossil is formed when a tube is filled with mineral matter and preserved?
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Which of the following scientists is credited with formulating the principle of faunal succession?
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What is the term for the process of determining the age of rocks and minerals by measuring the amount of radioactive isotopes present?
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What is the term for the study of the remains or traces of pre-existing organisms?
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Which of the following is a type of unconformity that occurs when tilted or folded sedimentary rocks are overlain by more flat-lying strata?
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What type of fossil faithfully reflects only the shape and surface markings of the organism?
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What is an unconformity?
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How many half-lives have occurred when three-quarters of a radioactive isotope has decayed?
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Which radioactive isotope is the most versatile for radiometric dating due to its abundance in silicate minerals?
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If the half-life of a material X is 1000 years and you found a specimen with equal amounts of material X and material Z, the specimen would be about how old?
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What type of fossilization occurs when fine sediment encases the remains of an organism?
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What is the term for a gap in the rock record where sediment deposition has been interrupted?
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What type of decay involves the emission of 2 protons and 2 neutrons from an atom?
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What is the term for a layer of rock that has been deposited without interruption and has not undergone erosion?
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What type of dating method determines the age of rocks and minerals by measuring the amount of radioactive isotopes present?
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What is the term for unstable isotopes that undergo radioactive decay?
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Who proposed the principle that physical, chemical, and biological laws operating today also operated in the geologic past?
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What type of unconformity occurs when tilted or folded sedimentary rocks are overlain by more flat-lying strata?
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What is the term for the study of the remains or traces of pre-existing organisms?
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When evaluating the layers of rock, which term is used to describe layers that have been deposited without interruption and have not undergone erosion?
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What is the term for the process of fossilization where fine sediment encases the remains of an organism and, as time passes, pressure squeezes out liquids and gases, leaving behind a thin residue of carbon?
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Which type of fossil provides valuable information about the food habits of ancient organisms?
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Which of the following radioactive isotopes is the most versatile for radiometric dating due to its abundance in silicate minerals?
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Why are worms rarely found in the fossil record?
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Which individual proposed that the Earth was created on the night preceding October 27, 4004 B.C.?
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What is the preserved resin of ancient trees that sometimes fossilizes insects?
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Which circumstance would enhance an organism's chances of becoming a fossil?
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Which of the following regions is NOT characterized by isothermal ocean water?
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Which of the following oceans is the largest?
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What is the proportion of dissolved substances in seawater typically expressed as?
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Which type of continental margins is associated with relatively little earthquake or volcanic activity?
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Which of the following regions is characterized by a high latitude?
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What term is used to describe the shallow, submerged extension of a continent?
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What is the characteristic of deep trenches?
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What is the term for the downslope movements of dense, sediment-laden water?
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What is the term for a change in density of seawater with increasing depth?
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What is the equivalent of 35‰?
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What type of oceanographic feature is located beyond the shelf break and exhibits an average inclination of 4°?
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What is the term for a flat region of the deep-ocean basin that develops from the suspension settling of fine sediment over millions of years?
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What is the term for a bathymetric technique that utilizes a single sound wave to determine oceanic depth?
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What type of sediment is manganese nodules an example of?
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Where are the deepest parts of the Pacific Basin located?
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What is the term for the layer of the ocean that is the least dense and only occurs in the tropics where temperatures are high and salinity is relatively low?
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What is the term for water that exhibits no change in temperature with depth?
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What is the term for the arc-shaped depression in the deep-ocean floor that is formed as a converging oceanic plate is subducted?
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What type of sediment is derived primarily from the products of weathering on the continents?
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Where do submarine canyons occur?
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What is the term for the region directly seaward of the continental shelf?
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What percentage of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans and marginal seas?
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In which of the following regions would you expect to find ocean water that is isothermal?
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What is the region of the ocean floor that is in close proximity to the continent?
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Which region of the ocean floor is characterized by an average inclination of 4°?
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Which zone of the ocean would typically be found at the equator?
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What is the term for the shallow water that is in close proximity to the continent?
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Beyond which feature is the continental slope located?
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What is the term for the flat, featureless expanses of sediment-covered ocean floor found at the periphery of all oceans?
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What is the term that refers to the total amount of dissolved solids in the ocean?
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Which bathymetric technique uses low-frequency sound waves to see the depth of the ocean and subsurface structures?
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What is the term for the shallow, submerged extension of a continent?
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Directly seaward of the continental shelf is a more steeply sloping region known as the?
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Which type of current is NOT associated with turbidity currents?
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What is the term for minerals that crystallize directly from seawater?
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Which type of ocean floor feature is formed by the movement of tectonic plates?
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What is the term for underwater avalanches of muddy water mixed with rock and debris?
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What is the term for the arc-shaped depression in the deep-ocean floor formed as a converging oceanic plate is subducted?
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Which of the following types of continental margins is typically associated with relatively little earthquake or volcanic activity?
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What is the term for the layer of rapid temperature change in the ocean?
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What is the term for long, relatively narrow features that form in the deepest part of the ocean?
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Which ocean has the greatest average depth?
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What is characteristic of graded bedding?
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Where do submarine canyons typically occur?
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What is the term for the study of the ocean floor contours?
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Which hemisphere is known as the land hemisphere?
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What is the term for the daily rise and fall of the sea level caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun?
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What is the term for the movement of water induced by the horizontal movement of water?
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What is the term for a linear ridge of sediment attached to land at one end that 'hooks' into an adjacent bay?
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What is the term for the circulation of water in the deep ocean driven by density variations?
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What is the term for the distance over which wind blows without significant change in direction or speed?
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What is the term for the time interval between the passage of successive crests at a stationary point?
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What is the term for the currents that advance into the coastal zone as the tide rises?
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Which of the following is NOT one of the subtropical gyres in the world ocean?
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What type of shoreline feature is a result of shoreline deposition?
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When are waves affected by the sea floor?
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What is the term for the horizontal distance separating successive wave crests?
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What is the term for the time it takes for a wave to move a distance of one wavelength?
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A sand bar that completely crosses a bay, closing it off from the open ocean is a ____________.
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What type of shoreline feature is a result of shoreline erosion?
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When there is a single high tide and a single low tide each tidal day, the pattern is described as ____________.
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What is the term for the circular motion of water molecules in a wave?
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What is the term for a ridge of sediment that accumulates at the opening of a bay and hooks into the bay?
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What is the term for the direction of water movement along a shoreline?
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What term is used to describe the depth at which the diameter of wave circular orbits becomes negligible?
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What is the term used to describe the energy that drives longshore currents?
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What is the term used to describe the downward movement of water induced by the horizontal movement of water?
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What is the term used to describe a bridge of sediments that accumulates to connect an island to the mainland?
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What is the term used to describe the horizontal distance separating successive wave crests?
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What is the term used to describe the movement of water within the surf zone that generally parallels the shoreline?
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What is the term used to describe a barrier built at a right angle to the beach to trap sand that is moving parallel to shore?
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What is the term used to describe an isolated remnant of wave erosion?
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What is the term used to describe the process of wave refraction?
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What is the term used to describe the rising of cold water from deeper layers to replace warmer surface water?
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During which type of tide is the daily tidal range greatest?
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What is the term for the distance over which wind blows without significant change in direction or speed?
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What is the term for the deflection of currents due to the Earth's rotation?
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What is the term for a ridge of sand projecting into a bay and often having a hooked end?
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What is the term for the water flowing up the beach or beach face after a wave breaks?
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Which of the following shoreline features is a result of shoreline erosion?
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Which of the following is NOT one of the subtropical gyres in the world ocean?
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What is the term for the vertical distance between a wave crest and the adjacent wave trough?
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What type of barrier is built at a right angle to the beach to trap sand that is moving parallel to shore?
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When is the daily tidal range greatest?
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What is the time interval between the passage of successive crests at a stationary point?
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What is the circular motion of water molecules extending to a depth that is equal to?
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What type of tides occur when the gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun act on Earth at right angles?
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What factors affect the height, length, and period of a wave?
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What is the process of vertical movement of cold, deep, nutrient-rich water to the ocean surface?
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What is a sand bar that completely crosses a bay, closing it off from the open ocean?
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What is the term for the horizontal distance separating successive wave crests?
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What is the rising of cold water from deeper layers to replace warmer surface water?
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What is the term for the vertical movement of surface water to the deeper portions of the ocean?
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What is the term for a linear ridge of sediment attached to land at one end that 'hooks' into an adjacent bay?
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What is the term for the daily tidal range that is least during?
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What is the term for a ridge of sand projecting into a bay and often having a hooked end?
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What is the term for an accumulation of sediment along the landward edge of an ocean, marginal sea, or lake?
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What is the term for currents that advance into the coastal zone as the tide rises?
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What is the term for an isolated remnant of wave erosion?
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What is the term for the vertical distance between a wave crest and the adjacent wave trough?
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What is the term used to describe the vertical distance between a wave crest and the adjacent wave trough?
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When a breakwater is built beyond the surf zone offshore from a sandy beach, what is the likely outcome?
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What is the primary source of energy for longshore currents?
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What is the term for the movement of water within the surf zone that generally parallels the shoreline?
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What is one result of wave refraction?
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Which of the following factors does NOT affect wind wave development?
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What is the term for the distance over which wind blows without significant change in direction or speed?
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Which of the following is NOT a subtropical gyre in the world ocean?
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What term is used to describe the type of tides that are characterized by a single high and low water height each day?
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When the gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun act on Earth at right angles, the influence of each is partially offset, resulting in daily tidal ranges that are lower. What is this known as?
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What is the term for the horizontal distance separating successive wave crests?
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What is the term for the daily tidal range being greatest during a particular tide?
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What drives surface ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream?
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What is the term for the deflection of currents due to the Earth's rotation?
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What is the term for water flowing out of an enclosed basin due to the approach of the tidal trough (low tide)?
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What is the term for a sand bar that completely crosses a bay, closing it off from the open ocean?
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Which of the following would be warmed by the influence of a western boundary current?
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What is the term for the time interval between the passage of successive crests at a stationary point?
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Study Notes
Geologic Time and Dating
- The act of placing rocks in their proper sequence of formation is called correlation.
- Relative dating is used to determine the age of a rock relative to another rock.
- Absolute dating provides the exact age of a rock in years.
Geological Principles
- The principle of original horizontality states that sedimentary rocks are originally deposited in a horizontal position.
- The law of superposition states that older rocks are buried beneath younger rocks.
- Cross-cutting relationships can be used to determine the relative age of rocks.
Fossils and Unconformities
- Fossil plants and animals succeed each other in a definite and determinable order.
- The law of faunal succession states that fossils in a particular area will always be in the same order.
- Coprolites are fossil dung and undigested stomach contents that provide useful information about the food habits of organisms.
- Index fossils are widespread fossils that denote particular short periods of time in the geologic past.
Unconformities
- A nonconformity is an unconformity that separates older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks from younger sedimentary strata.
- An angular unconformity is a type of unconformity that separates older tilted or folded rocks from younger horizontal rocks.
- A disconformity is a type of unconformity that separates two parallel rock layers of different ages.
Radioactive Dating
- Radioactive decay is the spontaneous decay of an atom's nucleus.
- An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons.
- The half-life of a radioactive material is the time it takes for half of the material to decay.
- Radioactive isotopes can be used to date rocks and determine their age.
Relative Dating Methods
- Cross-cutting relationships can be used to determine the relative age of rocks.
- Inclusions are fragments of one rock type within another rock type.
- Superposition is the principle that older rocks are buried beneath younger rocks.
Geologic History
- The geologic history of an area can be reconstructed by correlating rock layers and determining their relative age.
- Unconformities can be used to reconstruct the geologic history of an area.
- Fossils can provide information about the environment and ecosystems of the past.
Geologic Principles
- A break in the rock record where the deposition of sediment has been interrupted is referred to as an unconformity.
- Igneous rock that cuts through sedimentary rock must be younger than that sedimentary rock, illustrating cross-cutting relationships.
Law of Superposition
- The law of superposition states that groups of fossil plants and animals succeed each other in a definite and determinable order.
- This law allows for the recognition of any period of time by its respective fossils.
Fossilization
- When a shell or other structure is buried in sediment and then dissolved by groundwater, a mold is created, faithfully reflecting only the shape and surface markings of the organism.
- Burrowing organisms can generate tubes in sediment, wood, or even rock, and if filled with mineral matter, form a fossil.
- Fossilization can occur through carbonization, where fine sediment encases the remains of an organism and, as time passes, pressure squeezes out liquids and gases, leaving behind a thin residue of carbon.
Geologic Time Scale
- The geologic time scale is an illustration of Earth time, divided into units of varying magnitude, originally developed using fossils and relative dating principles.
Radioactive Decay
- An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons.
- The percentage of radioactive atoms that decay during one half-life is always the same (50%).
- By applying the principle of faunal/fossil succession, relative dates can be determined.
Paleontology
- Paleontology is the scientific study of the remains or traces of pre-existing organisms/prehistoric life.
- The principle of fossil succession states that fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order and, as a result, any geologic time period can be recognized by its fossil content.
Fossil Formation
- Organisms with hard parts, that die quickly and in large numbers, are more likely to become fossils.
- Permineralization is a type of fossilization where groundwater permeates through the porous tissue of an organism, resulting in minerals precipitating out of solution and filling in the pores and empty spaces of the material.
Index Fossils
- Widespread fossils that denote particular short periods of time in the geologic past are referred to as index fossils.
- Index fossils allow for the recognition of specific time periods in the geologic past.
Geologic Time Scale
- The geologic time scale is an illustration of Earth's time, divided into units of varying magnitude, originally developed using fossils and relative dating principles.
Atomic Structure
- An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons.
Rock Layers
- Conformable layers are horizontal rock layers deposited without interruption, with no erosion occurring.
History of Geology
- James Usher proposed that the Earth was created on the night preceding October 27, 4004 B.C., an idea that gained widespread acceptance in the 17th and 18th centuries and developed into the concept of catastrophism.
Radioactive Decay
- Radioactive decay is the spontaneous breakdown of the nucleus, which occurs when the bonds holding protons and neutrons together are not strong.
- Alpha decay consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons being emitted by the atom.
Fossilization Methods
- Permineralization is a type of fossilization that occurs when groundwater permeates through the porous tissue of an organism, resulting in minerals precipitating out of solution and filling in the pores and empty spaces.
Principles of Geology
- The law of faunal succession states that groups of fossil plants and animals succeed each other in a definite and determinable order, and any period of time can be recognized by its respective fossils.
- The principle of original horizontality states that sedimentary rocks are originally deposited in a horizontal position.
Geologic Concepts
- Catastrophism is the idea that the Earth's landscape has been shaped by great events, proposing that the Earth has a very short history.
- Uniformitarianism is the opposite idea, proposing that the Earth's landscape has been shaped by gradual, ongoing processes.
Geological Phenomena
- An angular unconformity is present when tilted or folded sedimentary rocks are overlain by more flat-lying strata.
Historical Figures
- William Smith is credited with formulating the principle of faunal succession.
- James Hutton is a significant figure in the history of geology, but his contributions are not specified in the text.
Dating Methods
- Relative dating can be determined by applying the law of superposition.
- Radiometric dating is a type of numerical dating that uses isotopes to determine the age of rocks.
- The isotope commonly used for dating objects a few thousand years old is radiocarbon.
Field Investigation and Rock Ages
- During a field investigation, if a layer of sandstone is found in contact with a mass of granite, and the granite contains small pieces of the sandstone, the granite is older.
Law of Superposition
- The law of superposition states that in a sequence of sedimentary rocks, each bed is older than the one above it and younger than the one below it.
- This law was formulated by Nicolaus Steno.
Scientific Study of Remains
- The scientific study of the remains or traces of pre-existing organisms or prehistoric life is termed Paleontology.
Geologic Time Scale
- The subdivisions of the geologic time scale that represent the greatest expanse of time are called eras.
- The geologic time scale is an illustration of Earth time and divides this time into units of varying magnitude.
- It was originally developed using fossils and relative dating principles.
Unconformities
- A disconformity is a gap in the rock record where there is a considerable span of time for which no sedimentary rock layer exists at a site.
- A nonconformity separates older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks from younger sedimentary strata.
- An angular unconformity separates older tilted or folded rocks from younger flat-lying strata.
Fossilization
- A worm would stand a poor chance of being fossilized because it has no hard parts.
Radiometric Dating
- Uranium-238 is the most versatile radioactive isotope for radiometric dating due to its abundance in silicate minerals.
- One half-life is the time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms to decay.
- The percentage of radioactive atoms that decay during one half-life is always the same (50%).
Preserved Resin
- Insects are sometimes fossilized in the hardened resin of ancient trees, which is called amber.
Principles of Relative Dating
- The principle of original horizontality states that sedimentary rocks are originally deposited in a horizontal position.
- The principle of cross-cutting relationships states that an igneous rock that cuts through a sedimentary rock must be younger than that sedimentary rock.
- The principle of fossil succession states that fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order.
Atomic Structure
- An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons.
- Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain different numbers of neutrons.
Geological Time Periods
- James Hutton proposed the principle that states the physical, chemical, and biological laws that operate today also operated in the geologic past.
- James Usher proposed that the Earth was created on the night preceding October 27, 4004 B.C.
Fossil Record
- Coprolites are fossil dung and undigested stomach contents that can provide useful information pertaining to food habits of organisms.
- Index fossils are fossils that can be used to date rocks.
Fossil and Geologic Time Scale
- Widespread fossils that denote particular short periods of time in the geologic past are referred to as index fossils.
- The scientific study of the remains or traces of pre-existing organisms/prehistoric life is termed paleontology.
- The subdivisions of the geologic time scale that represent the greatest expanse of time are called eras.
Radioactive Dating
- The percentage of radioactive atoms that decay during one half-life is always the same (50%).
- The principle of faunal/fossil succession states that fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order, and any geologic time period can be recognized by its fossil content.
- Relative dates can be determined by applying the law of superposition.
Unconformities and Fossilization
- When tilted or folded sedimentary rocks are overlain by more flat-lying strata, a disconformity is present.
- Fossil dung and undigested stomach contents that can provide useful information pertaining to food habits of organisms are called coprolites.
- Some organisms can generate tubes in sediment, wood, or even rock; this tube is later filled with mineral matter and preserved, forming a burrow.
Geologic Principles
- The principle of uniformitarianism states that the physical, chemical, and biological laws that operate today also operated in the geologic past.
- The law of original horizontality states that originally, sedimentary rocks were deposited in a horizontal position.
- The principle of cross-cutting relationships states that if an igneous rock cuts across a sedimentary rock, the igneous rock is younger than the sedimentary rock.
Fossil Formation and Types
- A worm would stand a poor chance of being fossilized because worms have no hard parts.
- Quick death, large numbers of organisms, possession of hard parts, and death in a lake or other environment with low oxygen levels can enhance an organism's chances of becoming a fossil.
- A mold is created when a shell or other structure is buried in sediment and then dissolved by groundwater, faithfully reflecting only the shape and surface markings of the organism.
Radioactive Isotopes and Half-Lives
- If three-quarters of a radioactive isotope has decayed to become the stable daughter product, three half-lives have occurred.
- The radioactive isotope potassium-40 is the most versatile for radiometric dating due to its abundance in silicate minerals.
Geologic Principles and Fossils
- A break in the rock record where the deposition of sediment has been interrupted is referred to as an unconformity.
Radioactive Decay
- Radioactive decay occurs when the bonds that hold protons and neutrons are not strong, resulting in the spontaneous breakdown of the nucleus.
- Alpha particles consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons being emitted by the atom.
Unconformities
- An unconformity is a gap in the rock record.
- Angular unconformity occurs when tilted or folded sedimentary rocks are overlain by more flat-lying strata.
Relative and Numerical Dating
- The law of superposition allows for the determination of relative dates.
- Radiometric dating methods can be used to determine numerical dates.
Radioactive Isotopes
- Unstable isotopes with an unstable nucleus due to the number of neutrons are termed radioactive isotopes.
- These isotopes will begin to decay over time.
Historical Figures
- James Hutton proposed the principle that states the physical, chemical, and biological laws that operate today also operated in the geologic past.
- James Usher proposed that the Earth was created on the night preceding October 27, 4004 B.C.
Fossilization
- Insects can be fossilized in the hardened resin of ancient trees, known as amber.
- A worm would stand a poor chance of being fossilized because it has no hard parts.
- Organisms with hard parts, quick death, and burial in a low-oxygen environment have a higher chance of becoming fossils.
- Carbonization is a type of fossilization that develops when fine sediment encases the remains of an organism and, as time passes, pressure squeezes out liquids and gases, leaving behind a thin residue of carbon.
Radioactive Isotopes in Dating
- Potassium-40 is a versatile radioactive isotope for radiometric dating due to its abundance in silicate minerals.
- Carbon-14 is commonly used by anthropologists and archaeologists, as well as geologists, for dating objects a few thousand years old.
Oceanography
- The region of the deep-ocean basin with a very flat surface, formed by the suspension settling of fine sediment over millions of years, is termed the Abyssal plains.
- The shallow, submerged extension of a continent is called the Continental shelf.
- The characteristics of deep trenches indicate that they are elongated subduction-related creases in the oceanic crust.
- The oceanographic location beyond the shelf break, with an average inclination of 4°, is called the Continental slope.
- The downslope movements of dense, sediment-laden water are termed Turbidity currents.
- A change in density of seawater with increasing depth is called a Pycnocline.
Ocean Features
- The deepest parts of the Pacific Basin are located near the margins of South America, Japan, and the Marianas Islands.
- The arc-shaped depression in the deep-ocean floor, formed as a converging oceanic plate is subducted, is called a Trench.
- Submarine canyons occur near the edges of ocean basins associated with continental shelves and slopes.
- Directly seaward of the continental shelf is a more steeply sloping region known as the Continental slope.
Sediments
- Sediments derived primarily from the products of weathering on the continents are called Terrigenous sediment.
- Minerals that crystallize directly from seawater are examples of Hydrogenous sediment.
- Sediments derived from the remains of plants and animals are called Biogenous sediment.
Ocean Coverage and Salinity
- 71% of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans and marginal seas.
- The term "salinity" refers to The total amount of dissolved solids in the ocean.
- The proportion of dissolved substances in seawater is expressed as 0/00, which is the same as parts per thousand.
Temperature and Ocean Water
- In high latitude regions, water temperatures do not change considerably from the ocean's surface to the ocean seafloor, and water that exhibits no change in temperature with depth is termed Isothermal.
- Ocean water is stratified (layered) based upon density differences, with the least dense layer occurring in the Surface mixed zone.
- In which of the following regions would you expect to find ocean water that is isothermal? Polar regions (high latitude).
Oceans and Margins
- Of the Earth's major oceans, the Pacific is by far the largest.
- The gently sloping submerged surface extending from the shoreline toward the deep ocean is termed the Continental shelf.
- Passive margins typically face the edges of diverging plate boundaries and are associated with relatively little earthquake or volcanic activity.
Oceanography
- A continental shelf is a shallow, submerged extension of a continent underlain by granitic continental crust and may contain oil and mineral deposits similar to those observed on nearby dry land.
- Salinity refers to the total amount of dissolved solids in the ocean.
- Abyssal plains are flat, featureless expanses of sediment-covered ocean floor found at the periphery of all oceans, between the continental margin and mid-ocean ridge.
Bathymetric Techniques
- Seismic reflection is a bathymetric technique that allows oceanographers to see the depth of the ocean as well as subsurface structures such as rock or sediment layers by utilizing low-frequency sound waves generated by explosions or air guns.
Ocean Floor Features
- Continental slope is a more steeply sloping region directly seaward of the continental shelf.
- Turbidity currents are underwater avalanches of muddy water mixed with rock and debris that can result from an earthquake, oversteepening of sediment on the continental shelf, or the rapid input of sediment from flood waters.
- Density currents are downslope movements of dense, sediment-laden water.
- Graded bedding is characterized by a decrease in sediment size from bottom to top.
- Submarine canyons occur near the edges of ocean basins associated with continental shelves and slopes.
Continental Margins
- Passive margins are continental margins that typically face the edges of diverging plate boundaries and are associated with relatively little earthquake or volcanic activity.
- Active margins are associated with converging plate boundaries and are characterized by earthquake and volcanic activity.
Ocean Depth and Trenches
- Deep-ocean trenches are arc-shaped depressions in the deep-ocean floor that are formed as a converging oceanic plate is subducted.
- The Pacific Ocean has the greatest average depth.
- Deep-ocean trenches are the deepest places on Earth.
Oceanographic Zones
- The thermocline is the layer of rapid temperature change in the ocean, marking the transition between the warm surface layer and the deep zone of cold water below.
- The average salinity of the world ocean is approximately 35 parts per thousand.
Oceanography and Mapping
- Bathymetry is the discovery, charting (mapping), and study of ocean floor contours.
- The ocean floor has been divided into three topographic provinces: continental margin, ocean basin, and oceanic ridge.
Regions and Hemispheres
- The Northern Hemisphere is known as the land hemisphere.
- The continental margin is defined as the shallow water that is in close proximity to the continent.
- The continental slope is located beyond the shelf break and exhibits an average inclination of 4°.
Waves and Shorelines
- As a wave begins to feel bottom near a shoreline, its wave height increases and wavelength decreases.
- Barrier islands are separated from the mainland by a narrow body of water called a lagoon.
- The time interval between the passage of successive crests at a stationary point is called the wave period.
Ocean Circulation
- Deep ocean circulation is the result of density variations and is also called thermohaline circulation.
- The distance over which wind blows without significant change in direction or speed is known as the fetch.
Coastal Features
- A linear ridge of sediment attached to land at one end that "hooks" into an adjacent bay is called a spit.
- Tidal currents that advance into the coastal zone as the tide rises are called flood currents.
- Downward movement of water induced by the horizontal movement of water is known as downwelling.
Gyres and Tides
- The daily tidal range is greatest during spring tide.
- The North Atlantic Gyre, South Pacific Gyre, Indian Ocean Gyre, and North Pacific Gyre are all subtropical gyres in the world ocean.
- The Arctic Gyre is not a subtropical gyre.
Waves in the Open Ocean
- Water particles move in an almost circular path in open ocean waves.
- The wave form moves forward, but the water particles do not advance appreciably.
- The horizontal distance separating successive wave crests is called the wavelength.
Shoreline Deposition and Erosion
- A sand bar that completely crosses a bay, closing it off from the open ocean, is called a baymouth bar.
- When waves are affected by the sea floor, that is, when they begin to "feel bottom", it is when water depth is equal to one-half the wavelength.
- A barrier built at a right angle to the beach to trap sand that is moving parallel to shore is termed a groin.
Currents and Patterns
- Currents tend to move in great clockwise patterns in the northern hemisphere.
- Elongate ridges of sand that project from the land into the mouth of an adjacent bay are known as spits.
Wave Properties
- The time it takes for a wave to move a distance of one wavelength is known as the wave period.
- The circular motion of water molecules extends to a depth that is equal to wavelength/2.
Breakwaters and Shoreline Features
- A ridge of sediment that accumulates at the opening of a bay and hooks into the bay is called a bay barrier.
- When a breakwater is built beyond the surf zone offshore from a sandy beach, the area between the shore and the breakwater will probably begin filling in with sand.
- Sea arches and sea caves are results of shoreline erosion.
Oceanography
- The daily tidal range is greatest during spring tide.
Wind and Waves
- Fetch is the distance over which wind blows without significant change in direction or speed.
- The Coriolis effect is the deflection of currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Earth's rotation.
Coastal Landforms
- A spit is a ridge of sand projecting into a bay and often having a hooked end.
- A tombolo is a bridge of sediments that accumulates to connect an island to the mainland.
- A bay barrier is a ridge of sediment that closes a bay off from the open ocean.
Ocean Currents
- A gyre is a system of four currents completing a flow circuit around the periphery of an ocean basin.
- The Coriolis effect causes currents to deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
Waves and Beach Processes
- Swash is the water flowing up the beach/beach face after a wave breaks.
- Backwash is the water flowing down the beach/beach face after swash.
- Wave height is the vertical distance between a wave crest and the adjacent wave trough.
- Wavelength is the horizontal distance separating successive wave crests.
- Wave period is the time between successive wave crests.
Coastal Erosion and Deposition
- Sea arches, sea caves, and sea stacks are formed through erosion by waves.
- Wave refraction causes wave energy to be concentrated on headlands and dissipated in recessed areas.
- Longshore currents are driven by wind waves approaching the beach at an angle.
- Downwelling is the downward movement of water induced by the horizontal movement of water.
Coastal Protection
- Groins are structures built at a right angle to the beach to trap sand that is moving parallel to shore and prevent erosion.
- Seawalls are structures built parallel to the beach to prevent erosion.
- Beach nourishment is a process of pumping sand onto the beach to widen it and prevent erosion.
Coastal Processes
- A barrier built at a right angle to the beach to trap sand that is moving parallel to the shore is termed a groin.
- A seawall is a barrier built to prevent erosion of the coast.
- A breakwater is a barrier built to protect a harbor or a coastal area from the impact of waves.
Tides
- The daily tidal range is greatest during spring tide.
- When the gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun act on Earth at right angles, the influence of each is partially offset, resulting in daily tidal ranges that are lower, known as neap tides.
- Ebb current is the flow of water out of an enclosed basin due to the approach of the tidal trough (low tide).
- Flood current is the flow of water into an enclosed basin due to the approach of the tidal crest (high tide).
Waves
- The wave period is the time interval between the passage of successive crests at a stationary point.
- The wavelength is the horizontal distance separating successive wave crests.
- The wave height is the vertical distance between a wave crest and the adjacent wave trough.
- The circular motion of water molecules extends to a depth that is equal to wavelength/20.
- The height, length, and period of a wave depend on the length of time the wind has blown, the wind speed, and the fetch.
Ocean Currents
- Upwelling is the vertical movement of cold, deep, nutrient-rich water to the ocean surface.
- Downwelling is the vertical movement of surface water to the deeper portions of the ocean.
- Currents tend to move in great clockwise patterns in the northern hemisphere.
Coastal Features
- A spit is a ridge of sand projecting into a bay and often having a hooked end.
- A tombolo is a sand bar that connects an island to the mainland.
- A baymouth bar is a sand bar that completely crosses a bay, closing it off from the open ocean.
- A sea stack is an isolated remnant of wave erosion.
- A marine terrace is an accumulation of sediment along the landward edge of an ocean, marginal sea, or lake.
- A beach is an accumulation of sediment along the landward edge of an ocean, marginal sea, or lake.
Coastal Processes and Features
- When a breakwater is built beyond the surf zone offshore from a sandy beach, the area between the shore and the breakwater will probably be deepened by the intensified longshore current.
- Near shore, if the wave crests are two hundred feet apart, the wave will "feel" the bottom when the depth is about 20 feet.
- Barrier islands are separated from the mainland by a narrow body of water, termed a lagoon.
Ocean Waves and Coastal Processes
- Wave height is the vertical distance between a wave crest and the adjacent wave trough.
- The energy that drives longshore currents is derived from wind waves approaching the beach at an angle.
- Longshore currents are intensified when a breakwater is built beyond the surf zone offshore from a sandy beach, resulting in the deepening of the area between the shore and the breakwater.
- The movement of water within the surf zone that generally parallels the shoreline is called a longshore current.
- One result of wave refraction is that wave energy is concentrated on headlands projecting into the water.
Wind Waves and Fetch
- Wind strength, wind duration, and fetch are factors that affect wind wave development.
- Fetch is the distance over which wind blows without significant change in direction or speed.
- Water temperature does not affect wind wave development.
Ocean Currents and Tides
- The energy that drives surface ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream comes from prevailing winds.
- Coriolis force is the deflection of currents due to the rotation of the Earth, resulting in currents being deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
- The daily tidal range is least during neap tide and greatest during spring tide.
- Semidiurnal tides are characterized by two high and low water heights each day.
- Diurnal tides are characterized by a single high and low water height each day.
Shoreline Features and Erosion
- Sea arches are a result of shoreline erosion.
- Bay barriers are a type of coastal barrier that forms a sand bar that completely crosses a bay, closing it off from the open ocean.
- Groins, beach nourishment, and seawalls are designed to prevent or mitigate shoreline erosion.
Ocean Currents and Climate
- Ocean currents have a profound impact on the climate of regions.
- Western boundary currents, such as the Gulf Stream, warm the east coast of the United States.
Wave Characteristics
- Wavelength is the horizontal distance separating successive wave crests.
- Wave period is the time interval between the passage of successive crests at a stationary point.
- Wave frequency is the number of waves passing a given point per unit time.
- The diameter of wave circular orbits at the ocean's surface decreases with increasing depth until the orbits become so small that the overall movement is negligible, at a depth equal to ½ the original wavelength.
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Test your knowledge of geology concepts such as relative dating, rock formation, and principles of geologic time. Identify the correct sequence of rock formation and determine the age of rocks in a field investigation.
