Geological Time Scale and Epochs

Geological Time Scale and Epochs

• Earth's history divides into Geological Epochs as units of time.
• Time Units are ordered as follows: Eons → Eras → Periods → Epochs → Ages.
• Epochs are subdivisions of geological time, lasting thousands to millions of years.
• Epochs are globally defined by stratigraphic evidence in rocks or ice.
• Geological divisions don't use dates but physical evidence like boundaries in rock or ice layers.
• Defining a new unit requires a global signal in the geological record.
• The International Chronostratigraphic Chart is a circular chart depicting Earth's timeline.
• The chart marks events such as the "last dinosaurs" (Cretaceous) and "Holocene epoch" (last 11,500 years).
• Geological time is organized into nested units: eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages.
• This organization fits together like Russian dolls, showing relationships between timescales.
• The Holocene epoch is marked in green and positioned as part of the Quaternary period
• The Quaternary period began 2.6 million years ago.
• The Quaternary period is part of the Cenozoic era (66 million years ago).
• The Cenozoic era is a subdivision of the Phanerozoic eon (541 million years ago).
• Defining a new epoch requires a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) or "golden spike".
• It marks a new geological unit.
• GSSP acts as a reference point in the stratigraphic record.
• GSSP is agreed upon by geologists globally.
• GSSP ensures a universally recognized and permanent start marker for new geological stages.
• The Holocene epoch started ~12,000 years ago with a stable climate
• The Holocene is marked by the end of the Younger Dryas cooling period.
• This is evidenced by signals in the Greenland ice core like oxygen isotopes and reduced dust levels.
• Holocene transition includes oxygen isotope level changes in the NGRIP ice core from Greenland.
• This shift is the first major climatic shift at the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary.
• Oxygen Isotopes (6180) in a blue graph display fluctuation over time.
• A steady trend in 8180 reflects stable climates.
• The stable climates allowed for human agriculture and civilizations.
• First human migrations, the rise of agriculture, and civilizations like Greek and Roman occurred in the Holocene.

The Anthropocene Epoch

• Marks an epoch proposed to recognize human activity as the dominant influence on Earth's systems.
• Stratigraphic signals distinguish the Anthropocene from the Holocene.
• Paul Crutzen coined the term "Anthropocene" where humans dominate Earth's systems.
• He emphasized the profound and unprecedented impact of human activity.
• The term gained traction and is now widely used in scientific and public discourse.
• Population Growth has Doubled since 1950, intensifying resource demands.
• Population growth is causing deforestation and increasing greenhouse gas emissions.
• Technological Development from fossil fuel combustion and synthetic materials creates new stratigraphic markers
• Land Use Changes from agriculture, urbanization, and deforestation cause habitat destruction.
• These changes lead to species extinctions and biotic shifts.
• Economic Activity from industrialization and global trade drives geochemical shifts.
• Economic activity increases radiogenic markers and CO2 levels.
• Earth System Science studies human disruptions to natural cycles
• Geology examines physical evidence in sediments and ice cores.
• Both support the Anthropocene as a new epoch.
• In 2019 a Vote decided if the Anthropocene should be formally recognized as a geological epoch.
• Recognition would require definition by a (GSSP) or "golden spike."
• The vote followed discussions and agreements at the 2016 International Geological Congress (IGC) in Cape Town.
• Total potential voting members: 34.
• The votes required for a quorum: 21 (60% of members).
• Votes Received: 33 (97% of membership participation).
• The Question was: "Should the Anthropocene be treated as a formal chrono-stratigraphic unit defined by a GSSP?"
• In Favor: 29 votes (88% of total).
• Against: 4 votes.
• Abstentions: None.
• The overwhelming majority (88%) support treating the Anthropocene as a formal geological epoch.
• This result strengthens the case for defining the Anthropocene with a distinct stratigraphic marker.
• Next Steps: The vote provides a foundation for further studies and formal proposals.
• These steps will finalize the stratigraphic criteria.
• These steps will determine the GSSP for the Anthropocene.

Stratigraphic Signals

• Include new anthropogenic materials in sediments.
• These include aluminum, plastics, and concrete.
• These materials are unprecedented in Earth's geological history.
• Modification of Sedimentary Processes indicates human activities impacts.
• These activities include mining, construction, and agriculture.
• Modifications have altered sedimentation patterns globally.
• Sediments and ice contain increased levels of nitrogen and phosphorus due to fertilizer use.
• Radiogenic Signatures like radionuclides from nuclear testing are now embedded in sediments and ice.
• These signatures provide a unique marker of human activity.
• Carbon Cycle Evidence from ice cores reveals a rapid increase in CO2 and CH4 levels since the Industrial Revolution.
• This indicates human-driven disruptions to the carbon cycle.
• Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise are distinct indicators of human impact.
• Biotic Changes include global species invasions (like domestic chickens) and increasing extinction rates.
• These highlight human-driven changes to biodiversity.
• The Industrial Revolution marked the Anthropocene's start.
• This is when CO2 and methane (CH4) concentrations from fossil fuel combustion started accumulating.
• The Great Acceleration points to the mid-20th century, after World War II.
• Post-WWII exponential growth in human activity produced significant stratigraphic markers
• The proposed Golden Spike (GSSP) defines the start of the Anthropocene using globally distinct stratigraphic markers.
• Potential Candidates include: Trinity Nuclear Test (1945) and Radionuclide Peak (1964).
• Trinity Nuclear Test Introduced plutonium isotopes into the atmosphere, creating a globally recognizable layer.
• Radionuclide Peak marks the peak of nuclear fallout from mid-20th-century testing.
• It leaves distinct radionuclides in sediments worldwide.
• Lake Crawford in Canada may record plutonium fallout, fossil fuel residues, and human land use changes.
• While Crawford Lake provides clear evidence, its markers are found outside the record.
• Crawford Lake highlights the need for consensus on a globally representative Golden Spike.

Sustainable Development Implications

• Human activities have pushed Earth's systems beyond the Holocene's variability.
• This has created significant and lasting environmental changes.
• It is necessary to adopt sustainable practices to mitigate further degradation.recognizing the urgency to ensure the planet's long-term resilience.
• Development must aim for environmental degradation for long-term resilience.
• This aligns with concepts like planetary boundaries.
• Recognizing the Anthropocene reinforces operating within planetary boundaries.
• Development models should move away from unrestrained growth and toward stewardship.
• Traditional development prioritizes economic growth, often at the expense of the natural ecosystems
• Collective Responsibility and strengthened global governance are required to tackle shared challenges
• The Anthropocene calls for integrating sustainability and equity into policymaking
• The Anthropocene can transform development frameworks, ensuring long-term environmental/social balance.

The Great Acceleration

• Refers to the dramatic post-1950 increase in human activity.
• These trends are visible in socio-economic and Earth system graphs.
• Key Features include rapid population growth, urbanization, industrialization, and economic output.
• There have been significant increases in resource extraction, fossil fuel use, and emissions.
• Rises in Earth system changes like CO2 concentrations, biodiversity loss, and global temperatures.
• The Great Acceleration marks the most intense period of human impact on the planet.
• Trends highlight how human activities have caused the primary changes impacting Earth's climate
• Cycles disrupted include carbon, nitrogen, and water.

Earth System Trends

• Include but are not limited to atmospheric carbon dioxide increases, nitrous oxide increases, and methane increase.
• Stratospheric ozone layer decreases, surface temperature increases, ocean acidification increases. Marine fish capture increases and shrimp aquaculture increases.
• Nitrogen to coastal zone increases, tropical forest loss is occurring, domestic land percentage is increasing.
• Terrestrial biosphere degradation is increasing.

Socio-economic trends

• Include population increase, real GDP increase, urban population increase, primary energy use increase
• Fertilizer Consumption is increasing, large amounts of dams are created.
• Water use is increasing, paper production is increasing.
• Transportation and the use of motor vehicles is increasing telecommunications usage is increasing and International tourism is increasing.

Traditional Linear Development Model

• Focuses on economic growth as the key to progress
• Follows the idea of modernization, where society advances through stages:
• Take-off: New industries develop during industrialization.
• Maturity: Economic growth outpaces population growth.
• Leading to higher consumption and a focus on welfare and material wealth.
• Prioritized rapid economic growth and modernization after WWII.
• Put human needs above environmental concerns.
• Western countries became prosperous using resources from other regions.
• Exploitation cannot be repeated globally due to limited resources.

Environmental Problems

• Treats nature only as a resource.
• This views progress as humans dominating nature.
• Over Emphasizes consumption and ignores environmental health.
• Disregards the limits in continued growth leading to resource depletion.

The Brundtland Model

• Introduced Sustainable Development (SD) as a framework integrating economic, social, and environmental goals.
• Aims to balance the conflict between development and sustainability.
• SD is development that meets present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their needs.
• It is a needs-based approach.
• It emphasizes basic human needs and equitable access to resources.
• Economic growth supports human needs, not the ultimate goal.
• Notion of finite capacities.
• Integrates planetary boundaries within environmental limits.
• The 3 Pillars of Sustainability integrates economic, social, and environmental factors
• Addressing all dimensions of change aims to balance development and sustainability.
• The pillars are treated as equal, which causes potential conflicts.
• Human bias focus centers on human-centric goals rather than ecosystem health.
• Measuring Progress: Progress on social dimensions are harder to quantify than economic metrics.

Solutions Proposed by the Brundtland Model

• Reviving Growth requires economic stability with minimal environmental impact.
• Managing population growth provides resources for Sustainability.
• Biodiversity preserved by protecting species and genetic resources
• Find ways cities and communities can thrive while the natural biosphere remains unencumbered.

New Paradigms for Sustainable Development.

• The Brundtland Model encourages new ways of thinking about sustainability.
• This focuses on inter-relationships between human actions and environmental effects.
• Griggs' Approach replaces the 3 pillars for a core idea: a healthy environment is the base for prosperity in society including the economy.
• Defines Sustainable Development as safeguarding earth's long-term life support systems.
• Emphasizes environmental protection as critical to societal well-being.
• The Ladder of Sustainable Development describes Sustainability Approaches.
• Weak Sustainability: substitutes natural resources with human-made or economical approaches
• Strong Sustainability: Perserves natural capital of some resources, like air and water.

Critique of Sustainable Development

• Vagueness of SD's definition hinders clear, actionable policies.
• Broad definition allows for various interpretations, which creates barriers for consistent application.
• Misuse of sustainable goals are frequent due to vague standards and a lack of direct oversight
• Weak Sustainable Development practices:Current efforts focus on small, gradual improvements. To truly make a difference, systemic transformations are needed.

Biogeochemical Cycles Overview

• The Earth is an open system for energy but closed for matter.
• The finite amount of matter must be recycled to support life.
• Biogeochemical Cycles: Processes recycle matter through biological, geological, and chemical transformations.
• Bio: Living organisms actively participate in these cycles.
• Geo: Geological processes like sedimentation and erosion.
• Chemical: Elements change forms (e.g., CO₂ to glucose in photosynthesis).
• Biogeochemical cycles maintain balance in ecosystems from recycling.

Key Terms

• Reservoir/Pool: Storage for matter (e.g., atmosphere, ocean, soil).
• Flux/Flow: Movement of matter between reservoirs.
• Influx: Flow into a reservoir (e.g., carbon absorption by oceans).
• Outflux: Flow out of a reservoir (e.g., CO2 emissions from respiration).
• Sink: A reservoir where influx is greater than outflux
• Source: A reservoir where outflux is greater than influx.
• Residence Time: Average compound stay in a reservoir.

Biogeochemical Reservoirs

• Elements move between Earth's major reservoirs: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.
• Major Reservoirs:Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere and Biosphere.
• Atmosphere composition consists of gases such as CO2, CH4, and N2
• Hydrosphere contains water bodies (surface and deep ocean)
• Lithosphere in earth crust (rocks sediments)
• Biosphere in all living organisms

Elemental Changes

• Transitions occur between abiotic and biotic forms.
• Abiotic (Non-living):Nitrogen in atmosphere
• Biotic (Living): Carbon in Glucose (C6H12O6)
• Elements cycle between reservoirs and living organisms, maintaining ecosystem balance.

Photosynthesis and Respiration

• Together recycle carbon and oxygen in the biosphere and atmosphere, maintaining ecosystem balance.
• The early atmosphere originally lacked oxygen (O2)
• The current oxygen level (21%) resulted from photosynthesis by early life forms.
• Photosynthesis uses sunlight to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) into glucose and oxygen (O2).The current oxygen level (21%) resulted from photosynthesis by early life forms.

Chemical Reaction Inputs/Outputs:

• 6 molecules of CO2.
• 6 molecules of H2O.
• Energy from sunlight.
• 1 molecule of glucose (C6H12O6).
• 6 molecules of oxygen (O2)
• Roles of Key Atoms are to form the backbone of glucose and to combine H with carbon to form glucose!
• In early photosynthetic organisms, oxygen was created and accumulated in the atmosphere.
• Plants and phytoplankton continue this process using carbon and releasing O2, on which humans and other organisms use for respiration.
• Respiration is breaking down glucose using oxygen, releasing energy, CO2, and water.
• Atomic Composition: Inputs: Glucose and oxygen. Outputs: CO2 and H2O.

Carbon Cycle

• Photosynthesis in biosphere absorbs atmosphere CO2 and stores it in organic carbon (glucose).
• Respiration returns carbon from biosphere to atmosphere as CO2.
• Pools and reservoirs exchange to create balance. Marine biosphere includes algae and seaweed! • Carbon cycle:Moves carbon atoms between atmosphere, biospheres(land and marine) through the following elements/factors is critical for regulating atmospheric CO2 and impact climate.
• Biosphere (land & marine): Carbon is stored and transformed to a degree Relevance: carbon atoms are also essential for life on earth especially building protein! • Reservoirs act as underground/organic storage including ocean which captures a lot of it.

Carbon Cycle & Human activities

• Oceans can store carbon as dissolved
• Terrestrial ecosystems (plants soil animals).
• Atmosphere has only carbon fractions compared to earth carbon.
• The sedimentary layers retain the carbon, and are not impacted from water.
• Oceans vulnerable to acidifications.
• Water can dissolve or get weakened.
• Terrestrial mechanisms and deforestration cause saturation.
• Deforestration has impact on the increase of CO2 in air.

Chemical Dynamics:

• We continue to exploit: by burning.
• land conversion causes a reduction, and makes an increase in C0.
• We harm marine life

Nitrogen cycle.

• Important to create amino acids, and is an building block for protein. Nitrogen and the atmosphere consists of N2, 78% of air (but it is still very unavailable!
• Nitrogen gets broken apart to build these acids.
• Bacteria uses enzymes to break apart N2 Main reservoir of Nitrogen is the atmosphere. Oceans can be sources and a reservoir of dissolved organisms and organic matter.

Human disruptions

• Habitat process helps created fertilizer that effects and suppress bio diversity and increase the chance to produce excess and fertilizer run off to water. Solutions:

1. Apply fertilizer more accurately, and transport it and the area with deficiencies
2. remove excess water and create pollution reduction techniques

Phospherous Cycles:

• Has an atmosphere in comparison with the nitrogen cycle.
• It exists in rocks and in minerals.
• Remains in this reservoir for millions of years. Released from soils from rocks through the biosphere.
• All is incorporated into living in organisms
• Flow/Fluvial cycles in rocks Human interference: accelerates weathering of rocks and and creates eutrophication of algae. Twofold are: if there is less of over abundance it could cause a disruption as it depends on which area! Phosphate reduction!

Eutrophication

• Excess amount nutrients that damage/degrade ecosystems or species.
• Fertilizer run off are high population region and agriculture.
• When algea dies it blocks sunlight! Which in-turn affects organisms from surviving.

###TASK 4: CLIMATE CHANGE

• Climate Change is an event that alters change as it is. Greenhouse mechanism: regulates and the normal earth temperature is around 15 degrees. There are three processes: Sunlight hitting surface.
• Energy hitting energy.
• GHG absorbs and then reemits and warming takes place.

KGHG

• Carbon: forest, and combustion CH4: fossil leaks
• Fertilizers and combustion
• CFC- Industry

Atmosphere composition

• Positive feed back with water. Global dimensions!
• CO2 has surge and increase: 51%
• 1.45 degrees has recorded since industrial times in 2023. Increase in GHG: and ocean temperatures have increased. ice sheets and glaciers and thermal expansion are taking place + extreme
• Temps are now at 1.4 degrees compared to last

IPC

The intergovernmental panel : purpose in the role - global and scientific data within 1-15 member states. Also information for climate scientists for review and provides results for science.

Reponsibilites include

• Provides/synthesises information from recent science. - - Assess reports
• Assiment
• WGI
• ings
• WGIII Key findings to IPCC AR6 Human infuence is uneqioavel causing the atmosphere Current climate are un precedented 1000s of years Temps have increase to 1 to 9 compared to level. Warming is confirmed data for to 100000.

Cryostphere ice and shift and atmosphere

Levels of the past has ice caps

• Depleted by 40% . Se levels had 20 m past, the shift is 3 point to 7 mm

Causes.

• Exp thermal
• Glacier shifts into place , water system .

Air and climate change and factors for climate

• Increased weather.
• Changes include rate of shifting and shifts

IPCC Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) – Mitigation Pathways.

• Includes factors for future emissions and future.
• Carbon Footprint Reduction actions and policies.

Influences of Climate Change

Influences include changes in solar, orbital shape, and heat balance.

• Composition is trapping heat. Ice/snow is reflective, so ice melting leads to less reflecting which increases warming. To find a solution we have study climate via ice, and look at the water.

Forces act as an out point for energy and to increase water or cool it. Forcing. GHG with carbon!

• Land uses changed

When energy goes out, it turns cool. By removing the sun it causes a cooling effect. .

• Forces act is less, but can not induce more more and temporary.
• Human activities have to introduce postive driving forces to shift the impact by adding GHG from the natural sources like CO2

Climate Feedbacks

Mechanisms within Earth's climate system amplify or counteract climate forcing to influence the overall climate response.

• Quick responses occur that add to impact with water evaporation with increase C02 and ice sheet expansion at a very delayed rate

C and other Cycles

O2 and energy from plants These gases add to the amount to help the amount in heat Also is an important feedback due to human impact, by helping in the environment it adds a shift.

Carbon Badget and footprint

Reducing the badget leads of change reduces impacts of CO2 and other gases. The carbon footpring that is measured and tracked is Also to help minimize use, and better change, is the right action that is right..

Human Influence is key

It measures the impact factors. Actions must take into account and consider other natural impacts. Studies test the temperatures and see that if natural it will level out but that with humans then you se the spike

Task7: Economic growth

GDP: market that measures the final of all goods. personal consumption including gov and products+export +net formation with capital Widely adopt it Effective at market actions There are limitation: ignoring if it provides well being or is fair within society.

• Unecon and bad sustainability.

GPI:

Holistic way of seeing the growth beyond GDP. Can provide better more well being better way with society.

Positive adjustsments. Can make the value be well and sustained and taken card. Consumptions/well. The adjustment are not always good/ Wealthy is not always good Crime to Pollutants Environmen degrade Resumes and adds up. Calculates personal data and makes adjustments for the better more sustinable

• Applications and ways improve society. The GP is better are provide a sustainable amount.

Economic growth is best for sustaining it.

Econo limit= growth beyond limit where cost increases and affects. Full and empty world economies Econ assumes there as the plan has to offer to keep growing where the plan is full world there is small limits compared to open World economies is about what you can get with nature, the full world is how can you take care Steady state:

We need for growth

1. limit resource use: Use resources only at rates that ecosystems can absorb as waste.
2. Exploiting Renewable Resources Sustainably harvest what ecosystems have. Do not deplete the biosphere!

The models should focus strong with what they with instead of trying to keep natural sources separate.

• There are various strategies that they have, but a lot has to be reconsiders like tex and local actions.

Business Models and sustainable change.

Actions should be performed while not beign. Haruful to the nature, while they act as profit. Pressure to act at a slower and cost effective speed! They are doing this better Business are are having new purpose and ethics.

The Pillars include

1. Econ
2. Legla
3. Ethical
4. Philanthropical All has to do with being better ethically. Ethical helps and aligned, and philanthropy is well beyond what is required.

Advantages:

• Lower cost
• More stake holder
• Better engagement. The are challenge! -May dilute the economy -Managers

Model must be better with its core and design to sustain in the long term- it needs to be ethical and moral. The best for the business are to stay sustainable because the company may benefit by increasing revenue without causing high cost!

• The company need to change from with-in!! Model with in the company, or there is change.

Four key actions need to change

1. long time effects
2. Life cycole and value
3. All that comes from there.

Value proposition. Offers/Sustain and make profit! The best is to look at companies like Tony chocolate and Patogonia! Make new system and help make the world better!!