Geography and Cartography

Geography and Cartography

• Geography studies the relationships between people and their environments, exploring both physical and human aspects of Earth's surface.
• Cartography is the science and art of map-making, focusing on the creation, design, and interpretation of maps to accurately represent geographic information.

Key Figures in Geography

• Eratosthenes was a Greek scholar who calculated Earth’s circumference and coined the term "geography."
• Ptolemy was an ancient Greek geographer and mathematician known for influential map creation.

Map Scales

• Small scale maps depict larger areas with less detail.
• Large scale maps depict smaller areas with more detail.
• Map scale represents the relationship between a distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the ground.
• Representative Fraction (RF) expresses scale as a ratio (e.g., 1:50,000).
• Graphic scales use a bar or line to visually represent the map scale.
• Verbal scales describe the map scale in words.

Distance and Location

• Absolute distance is the exact measurement between two points.
• Absolute location is a precise position on Earth specified by coordinates.
• Relative distance describes the space between two points in descriptive terms.
• Relative location describes a place's position in relation to other locations.

Latitude and Longitude

• Longitude lines run north-south, measuring the distance east or west of the Prime Meridian.
• Latitude lines run east-west, measuring the distance north or south of the Equator.

Key Geographic Points

• The North Pole is located at 90° North Latitude.
• The Equator is located at 0° Latitude.
• True North is based on the Earth's geographical axis, whereas Magnetic North is the direction in which a compass needle points based on the Earth's magnetic field.
• The Prime Meridian is the zero-degree line of longitude in Greenwich, England.
• The International Date Line follows mostly the 180° longitude marking the divide between calendar days.

Place Names and Regions

• Toponymy studies the origins, meanings, and uses of place names.
• Formal regions are defined by a shared characteristic such as language or climate.
• Functional regions are defined by a function or interaction, for example, a metropolitan area.
• Vernacular regions are defined by cultural identity or people’s perceptions, like the “Midwest”.

Culture and Globalization

• Culture includes the beliefs, customs, arts, and social institutions of a group or society.
• The cultural landscape encompasses the physical and cultural features defining an area.
• Globalization is the increasing interconnectedness of the world through trade, technology, and culture.
• Supranationalism occurs when countries cede some sovereignty to a higher authority, such as the European Union (EU).

Distribution of Features

• Density refers to the amount of something concentrated in a specific area.
• Concentration refers to how features are spaced out.
• Pattern refers to the arrangement of features.

Nations, States, and Ethnicity

• A nation is a group sharing cultural traits and a sense of identity.
• A state is a political entity with defined borders and sovereignty.
• Ethnicity refers to shared cultural characteristics that define a group of people.
• Race relies on physical characteristics, while ethnicity involves cultural traits and heritage.
• Sex refers to biological differences, whereas gender refers to social roles and expectations.
• Patriarchy is a social system where men hold primary power.

Spatial Interaction

• Spatial interaction involves the movement of people, goods, and information between places.
• Distance, connectivity, and barriers influence spatial interaction.
• Distance decay is the decline of an activity or interaction as distance increases.
• Critical distance is the point where interaction costs outweigh benefits.

Spatial Diffusion Types

• Relocation diffusion spreads an idea through physical movement.
• Expansion diffusion spreads an idea from a central point while remaining strong there.
• Contagious diffusion is rapid and widespread.
• Hierarchical diffusion spreads from larger to smaller, influential places.

Components of the Biosphere

• The atmosphere is the layer of gases surrounding the Earth.
• The hydrosphere includes all of Earth's water.
• The lithosphere is the Earth's solid outer layer.

Environmental Perspectives

• Possibilism suggests the environment sets constraints, but humans can innovate.
• Restrictive approaches believe the environment strictly limits human behavior.

Population Clusters and Density

• The four major population clusters are East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe.
• Arithmetic density is the total population divided by total land area.
• Physiological density is the total population divided by arable land area.
• Agricultural density is the number of farmers per unit of arable land.

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

• The DTM describes population growth transitioning from high to low birth and death rates as a country develops.
• The DTM assumes all countries follow the same development path, which is a notable problem.
• It does not account for global disparities, cultural differences, or migration’s impact.
• Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is the average number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime.
• A TFR of 2.1 is needed for population replacement.
• Economic development, cultural attitudes, healthcare availability, women's education, and government policies impact TFR.

Malthusian Theories

• Thomas Malthus published his book in 1798, aligning with Stage 2 of the DTM.
• Malthusian theory posits that population grows exponentially, while food production grows arithmetically leading to famine.
• Neo-Malthusian theory advocates for population control to avoid resource depletion.

Migration

• Migration is the movement of people for various reasons, like employment or education.
• A migration field is an area to which a group consistently migrates.
• Channelized migration occurs along established paths due to connections.
• Hierarchical migration moves from larger to smaller areas.
• Urbanization is the movement from rural to urban areas.
• Step migration occurs in stages.
• Chain migration follows established patterns.

Additional Concepts

• Environmental determinism suggests the physical environment shapes human behavior and culture.
• World System Theory divides the world into core, semi-periphery, and periphery based on economic status.

Demographic Transition Model (DTM) Stages

• Stage 1: High birth and death rates lead to slow growth (pre-industrial).
• Stage 2: High birth rates and falling death rates lead to rapid growth.
• Stage 3: Declining birth rates and low death rates result in slower growth.
• Stage 4: Low birth and death rates lead to population stability.
• Stage 5: Very low birth rates and low death rates lead to population decline.