Genetics: Traits, Alleles, and Inheritance

• Plant Biology is known as Plant biology 102 BOT
• The professor for the theoretical part of the course is Dr. Faisal Al-Harbi
• The professor is in the Faculty of Science, Department of plants and micro organisms
• To contact the professor use: [email protected]

Plant Biology, What to expect

• The introduction to plant cell, metabolism and, anatomy including the tissues, stems, leaves, and roots
• The description of the water relations in the plant and systems of absorption and transport
• A breakdown of photosynthesis, heredity, and life cycle, taxonomy, and evolution
• Studies on bryophytes, ferns, gymnosperms, angiosperms, flowers, fruits, and the plant environment

List books and references

• Biology of plants 5th. Raven, P.H., Evert, R.F. and Eichhorn, S.E.(1992). E. W.H. Freeman and company, Worth Publishers. New York.
• Biology of plants 6th. Raven, P.H., Evert, R.F. and Eichhorn, S.E.(1999). E. W.H. Freeman and company, Worth Publishers. New York.

Grade distribution policy

• The total course grade is out of 100 divided as follows:
• 60 degrees for term assignments:
  • 30 degrees for the theoretical part taught by Dr. Faisal Al-Harbi
  • 30 degrees for the practical part, taught by the professor in charge for the work
• 40 degrees for the final exam
• Monthly and final exam dates:
  • The term test for the theoretical part is conduct between the seventh and ninth week of the semester’s start.
  • Students will be notified of the exact confirmed date a full week ahead of the test date
  • The final test dates are scheduled on the student academic portal

Introduction

• The study of living organisms, plants, and animals is called Biology
• The study of plants is called Botany
• The study of animal is called Zoology
• Plants are green because of the presence of chlorophyll
• Fungi do not have chlorophyll
• Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymonosperms and Angiosperms are the plants groups

Importance of plants

• Plants produce most of the oxygen breathed
• Plants convert/fix carbon dioxide gas, CO2, into sugars, using photosynthesis
• Humans and animals then use those sugars as food, energy-rich molecules
• Everything we eat comes directly or indirectly from plants
• Plants produce most of the chemically stored energy we consume as food that is later burned for fuel

Medicinal chemical assortment

• Many chemicals produced by plants are medicine
• Plants can produce amazing and useful assortments of chemicals:
  • Vitamin A
  • Vanillin
  • Vitamin C
  • Caffeine
  • Morphine

Plant Importance

• Plants can be a source of biofuels
• Sugars, starches, and cellulose can be fermented into ethanol
• Ethanol is used as fuel
• Plants can be a source of biofuels
• Plants can replace petroleum for many products and purposes
• Petroleum is not a renewable resource

Other uses

• Plants provide more than food
  • Source of new therapeutic drugs
  • Better fibers for paper or fabric
  • Sources of bio renewable products
  • Provide renewable energy sources
  • Plant surfaces and inventions
• More reasons?
  • Conserve endangered plants and environments
  • Learn more about the natural world
  • Enhance plants' abilities to provide food, medicines, and energy

Branches of botany

• Morphology studies plants’ external structures.
• Anatomy studies their internal structures.
• Histology studies plant cells and tissues with microscopes.
• Cytology studies the cells.
• Plant Physiology studies the vital activities.
• Taxonomy studies the classification of the plants.
• Ecology study studies the organisms' relations to their surroundings.
• Plant Geography studies plants’ distribution on earth.
• Genetics studies heredity and variations.
• Plant breeding studies improved varieties of plants.
• Embryology studies embryos and their development.
• Economic Botany studies people's relationships to them.
• Plant Pathology studies plant diseases and pest controls.
• Palynology studies pollen grains.
• Agronomy studies crop plants.
• Horticulture studies flowering and fruiting plants.
• Pharmacognosy studies medicinal plants.
• Microbiology studies microorganisms.
• Genetic Engineering adds, removes, or repairs some genetic material to change the organism's phenotype.

Morphology and Anatomy

• Morphology is the study of external structures.
• Anatomy is the study of internal structures.
• Plant Physiology is the study of various vital activities

Cytology & Genetics

• Cytology is the study of cell structures and its components
• Genetics covers the study of heredity and variations

Taxonomy or Systemic Botany

• Taxonomy or Systemic Botany is the study of plant classification
• Because plants evolved in diverse land habitats, plants are described as diverse

Studies on Plant life

• Developing plants that are: – drought or stress tolerant – require less fertilizer or water – are resistant to pathogens – are more nutritious
• Geneticists have identified resistance genes and are introducing them into edible varieties
• Plant Biologists find ways to keep plants fresh after harvesting
• Plant Biologists enriched rice with Iron for better nutrition
• Plant Biologists are making antioxidants enriched tomatoes

Characteristics & Properties of All cells

• Life is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have self-sustaining biological processes
• Non living things are classified as inanimate.
• Cellular structure = a unit of life
• Metabolism (perform function)
• Movement (intracellular)
• Homeostasis: internal balance
• Organization:
• Growth (enlargement)
• Adaptation/Evolution: change over time
• Behavior (response to stimuli
• Reproduction (avoid extinction
• Pass on traits to offspring (heredity)

The Cell Theory

• The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all living things
• All living things are composed of one or more cells
• All cells come from pre-existing cells
• The cells of all living things carry on similar chemical activities
• All cells carry on their metabolic activities in organelles

Not all organisms are cells

• A virus and a prion are not considered cellular or are viewed as living organisms because of their simplicity
• They consist of only nucleic acid surrounded by a coat of protein
• These entities do not replicate outside of a host cell

Type of cells in organisms

• Prokaryotic cells do NOT have a well-defined nucleus or other cell organelles.
• Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus with a nuclear membrane and many cell organelles.
• Prokaryotic cells are oldest while the eukaryotic cells are the most specialized types

Specifics of cells

• Prokaryote cells are the oldest cell types and appeared first 3.5 billion years ago.
• Cells with no nucleus.
• DNA not contained in internal structure.
• Have a cell membrane
• Do not have membrane-bound organelles
• Generally smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells
• Can live in hostile environments, with halophiles and thermophiles in archeabacteria
• Very diverse in their metabolic process

Metabolic process in Prokaryotes:

• Obligate aerobes: must have oxygen to live
• Obligate anaerobes: can't live in oxygen
• Facultative anaerobes: survive with or without oxygen.
• Example: Bacteria

Eukaryotic Cells, the other type of cell:

• Eukaryotes are organisms that have a nucleus in each cell.
• The nucleus is where the cell's DNA is located.
• Have a cell membrane.
• Complex.
• Have complex membrane bound organelles.
• Many are highly specialized.
• Examples: Plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
• Appeared in the fossil record 1.5 billion years ago.

Cell wall layers

• Middle lamella: mostly pectin, cements adjacent cells together.
• Primary cell wall: found in all plant cells; characteristic of undifferentiated cells/those that are still growing.
• Secondary cell wall: just inside primary cell wall; characteristic of mature cells.
• Secondary cell walls contain hemicellulose and lignin.
• The symplastic space is connected by pores of plant cells called Plasmodesmata

Membrane Function

• The cell membrane's function is to form a barrier between the cell's inner and outer environment.
• The membrane is selectively permeable: it allows some materials to pass through and prevents movement of other materials.
• It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer with protein molecules embedded within the bilayer.
• Proteins pass completely through both layers.
• Cholesterol and carbohydrates associate with the cell membrane's outer surface.
• Phospholipids and proteins can move from one location to another, or change positions.
• Molecules are described as being in a fluid state, and this structure is named the fluid-mosaic model.

Other things to note:

• Cytoplasm includes many organelles.
• A watery solution made of cytosol that contains the cell organelles. Cytoplasm includes salts, an assortment of organic molecules, including many enzymes that catalyze reactions, as well as water in different quantities.
• The cytoskeleton is a framework' that supports the cell membrane and structures within the cytoplasm.
• The structures are eukaryotic cells that have unique shape and internal organization is by the cytoskeleton.
• The cytoskeleton is made up of microfilaments and microtubules
• Microfilaments are threadlike structures which made up of of the protein actin.
• They form networks for help some cells move

The specifics of the Cell

• Microtubules: are hollow structures made up of the protein tubulins.
• They are important in cell division and maintain cell shape.
• They build projections from the cell's surface.
• Cilia and flagella enable some cells to swim rapidly through liquids.
• The nucleus is enclosed in a double membrane structure.
• It has pore complexes which allow for material movement into and out of the structure.
• The nucleus contains DNA and proteins (chromatin. During mitosis or meiosis, chromatin super coils becomes chromosomes), with a self duplicating
• When the cell divides this structure also divides
• Nucleolus is a structure for RNA, located in the nucleoplasm which make ribosomes.
• Cell Organelles, is the central point to regulate cellular activities

More on Organelles

• Plastids-double membraneous.
• They are found only in the plant cell.
• Plastids meant for: photosynthesis and storage.
• Three Types: -chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
• Chloroplast: in the cell's cytoplasm; elongated disc that contains chlorophyll
• Chlorophyll: in green plants to make food by photosynthesis
• Plants take carbon dioxide + water from the soil + combine, which making sugar (Glucose
• Photosynthesis: is the conversion of light energy to chemical energy by chlorophyll

Organelle facts

• Chromoplasts (are only found in fruits which is why they look yellow, orange, red),
• Lecuoplasts: Color free; are found underground in roots, seeds and stems.
• Chloroplasts have double membrane.
• Flattened sacs known as thylakoids.
• Thylakoids are stacked with other.

The Power Cell

• Mitochondria has double membranes.
• Outer membrane (surrounds a folded inner membrane)
• It is the site of cellular aerobic respiration
• Inner membrane has finger projections for surface increase.
• Inner space called the matrix which contain cytoplasm ribosomes.
• Found in both plant and animals. Mitochondria can duplicate and are nicknamed THE POWERHOUSE of the cell.

About Golgis

• The Golgi apparatus (Dictyosome) is a cell organelle that is single membranous that's occur in cytoplasm.
• The single membranes has series of flattened structures stacking known as sacs.
• The Golgi apparatus has central manufacturing for: modification and packaging of protein for cells.

Ribosomes

• Ribosomes are the structures within the cell that read m-RNA for forming long protein chains.
• Floating loose inside of cytoplasm OR are found around of the nuclear envelope.
• Every types of cell have: Prokaryotic OR Eukaryotic
• Ribosomes come with two subunits.
• With sizes of 70s (Prokaryotic cells) otherwise 80s (Eukaryotic cells).
• • Ribosomes are found freely floating or have bond to Endoplasmic reticulum.
• Ribosomes have the site to protein synthesis.
• Ribosomes are parts from a small.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Endoplasmic Reticulum's channels through the cytoplasm. Made with: Single series of members. Two main:
• smooth: is where fat gets stored that are ribosome-free, performs functions in lipid synthesis of carbohydrates.
• Rough: a reticulum made up of ribosomes, the membrane is active, with a protein synthase activity.

Vacuoles

• Vacuoles are storage areas within the cell.
• Important for storing many substances that are located in water, have small animal origins at time.
• Large inside cells which contain water, animal materials, and nutrients for the organism.
• Mitochondria does not listen to the center or inner core
• The components in the cell go with duplicate and inheritable code and design.

Reproduction and Inheritance At Cell

• Cells have Life Cycle, made of sections, from Growth and Divisions with two steps at core:
• A cell Increase from Cell Size. The cell divides into two separate pieces
• With one part (Karyokinesis).
• Next a Cytokinesis.

Genetics in short

— Genome is a whole collection of material that form to genetics. — Chromosomes DNA is loose at first, then a coil of fiber tight makes, known as chromosomes.

Here are the Chromosomes

• A DNA formation with in Chromosomes
• Containing Nucleosomes, Histones
• Has more then one single chromosome
• As the count for Humans has amount of 23 total pairs
• DNA makes Chromosomes. Form a:
• package by protein supports proteins and make distinct and condensed divisions to perform — Chromatid - line by DNA the best life is were The Chromosomes make a great state
• In starting that is called karyokinesis, a strand in single form which makes two of each chromatids
• The are joined together and linked to one another, or a ''ad'' style.
• The Cromosomes
• In genetics are in pair state (known as ''diploid)

Chromatin

• in living nucleus
  • Threads made at support
    • Protein
• Structure was found in — Pack form which are heritable at material and are visible within the best kind known at form a cell. – Chromatrd
• line of DNA Chromosomes in life exist at this style

-The are chromosomes which are at beginning are a result for form a Dyad - A material in Chrometeds all equal

-centremers joins to provide structure as in ''Microtibles''

• Chromosomes:are tightly
  • wound that that is near.
  • Protein forms

Explore the basics of genetics, including the number of factors determining traits and dominance relationships. Understand the Law of Segregation and its implications for allele distribution in gametes. Learn how traits manifest physically and analyze phenotypic ratios in F2 generations of dihybrid crosses.