Genetics Flashcards: Bacterial Topoisomerase Concepts

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Questions and Answers

What happens when two copies of a lethal allele are inherited?

The organism will exhibit a new phenotype.

None of the offspring with that genotype will survive. (correct)

The organism will survive only if the allele is dominant.

The organism may survive with one copy of the allele.

How is penetrance defined?

The variability in phenotype expression among individuals.

The degree to which a phenotype is expressed.

The percentage of individuals with a mutation that exhibit the phenotype. (correct)

The interaction between multiple genes affecting a phenotype.

What is meant by variable expressivity?

Individuals show different levels of the same phenotype. (correct)

All individuals with a mutation show the same phenotype.

The phenotype is expressed only under specific environmental conditions.

The mutation does not affect phenotype presentation.

Which factors could explain why individuals with the same mutation do not show the same phenotype?

Environmental influences and genetic background. Signup and view all the answers

What did Beadle and Tatum's experiments reveal about mutant strains?

Each mutation behaved as a single gene. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of conducting a complementation test?

To identify the number of genes that have been mutated. Signup and view all the answers

What outcome is expected from a double mutant line in gene interaction studies?

An understanding of how mutations affect phenotype presentation. Signup and view all the answers

When multiple genes are involved in the presentation of a phenotype, what happens if one gene in the pathway is mutated?

The phenotype is altered from the wild type. Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean when two mutants fail to complement each other?

They have mutations in the same gene. Signup and view all the answers

In double mutant interactions, what does a 9:3:3:1 ratio indicate?

There is no interaction between the genes. Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of recessive epistasis in double mutant interactions?

A 9:3:4 ratio of offspring. Signup and view all the answers

What does a 15:1 ratio in synthetic mutations indicate?

Each mutation has no effect when considered separately. Signup and view all the answers

What leads to chromosomal rearrangements?

Aberrant crossing over. Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested by karyotypes remaining constant within a species?

Most genetic changes lead to a selective disadvantage. Signup and view all the answers

What indicates that closely related species differ by few rearrangements?

Their karyotypes are almost identical. Signup and view all the answers

What defines a dominant epistasis interaction?

One mutant allele masks another phenotype. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of short tandem repeats (STRs) compared to single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)?

STRs can have multiple different alleles, often exceeding 20. Signup and view all the answers

In gel electrophoresis, which statement correctly describes the movement of DNA molecules?

Small DNA fragments travel quickly and further than larger ones. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key difference between Sanger sequencing and traditional PCR?

Sanger sequencing needs only one primer. Signup and view all the answers

What purpose does a molecular ladder serve in gel electrophoresis?

It helps determine the sizes of DNA samples. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the addition of ddNTPs in Sanger sequencing?

They terminate DNA synthesis when incorporated. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of chromosomal rearrangements on an organism?

They may impact gene balance affecting phenotypes or viability. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during recombination in deletion heterozygotes?

Recombination happens only at homologous regions. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of inversion affects gene function leading to nonviable zygotes?

Paracentric inversion heterozygotes. Signup and view all the answers

What is characteristic of reciprocal translocations?

They involve the exchange of chromosome fragments between two chromosomes. Signup and view all the answers

How do translocation heterozygotes produce gametes?

They produce mostly unbalanced gametes. Signup and view all the answers

What defines a prototroph in bacteria?

A bacterium that can survive on minimal medium without supplements. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding paracentric inversion heterozygotes?

One recombinant chromatid may lack a centromere. Signup and view all the answers

Which one describes the effect of translocations on genetic mapping?

Translocations lead to altered genetic map distances due to pseudolinkage. Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of genetic modification at the level of entire genomes?

It results in an increase in the number of gene copies and gene families. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of DNA polymerase during DNA replication?

It catalyzes DNA synthesis. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the base pairing in DNA is true?

There is equal pairing between A and T, and C and G. Signup and view all the answers

What does semi-conservative replication of DNA imply?

One original strand is paired with a newly synthesized strand. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between cotransduction experiments and recombination frequency experiments?

Cotransduction frequency increases with the closeness of genes. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following components is NOT found in nucleotides?

Amino group Signup and view all the answers

Why are GC-rich regions of DNA considered more stable than AT-rich regions?

GC pairs form three hydrogen bonds, providing extra stability. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of helicase in DNA replication?

To disrupt hydrogen bonds between the DNA strands. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of phosphodiester linkages in DNA?

They link the 3' carbon of one sugar to the 5' carbon of another. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Lethal Alleles

Two copies of a mutant allele can be lethal
Homozygous individuals with a lethal allele will not survive

Penetrance and Expressivity

Penetrance is the percentage of individuals with a mutation that show the phenotype
Incomplete penetrance occurs when individuals with a mutant genotype do not express the mutant phenotype
Expressivity refers to the varying degrees to which a phenotype is expressed
Variable expressivity occurs when individuals show different levels of the phenotype

Factors Influencing Phenotype Expression

Environmental factors can influence phenotype
Other genes, known as genetic background, contribute to phenotypic expression
Subtlety of mutant phenotype may lead to misclassification

Gene Interactions in Pathways

Multiple genes typically participate in the expression of a phenotype
These genes often function in a pathway, where the product of one gene activates the next
Mutations in any gene within the pathway can disrupt the wild-type phenotype

Beadle and Tatum's Experiment

Studied the genetic control of cellular chemistry in Neurospora
Identified numerous mutant strains that required arginine for survival, known are arginine auxotrophs
Each mutation was attributed to a single gene
Mutations were mapped to three distinct loci

Determining Functional Relationships between Genes

Mutate a population to generate mutations in genes, creating numerous mutant lines
Conduct complementation tests to identify the number of genes mutated
Create double mutant lines to investigate gene interactions

Complementation Test

Used to determine if mutations are in the same gene or different genes
Mutations in different genes complement each other, resulting in a wild-type phenotype
Mutations in the same gene fail to complement, resulting in a mutant phenotype

Double Mutant Interactions

No interaction: 9:3:3:1 ratio, genes are not in the same pathway
Same pathway: 9:7 ratio, genes are in the same pathway and collaborate towards a final product or phenotype
Recessive epistasis: 9:3:4 ratio, mutations in two different genes affect the same trait
Dominant epistasis: 12:3:1 ratio, one mutant allele masks the phenotype of another mutant allele, where the masking alleles are dominant
Suppressor mutations: 13:3 ratio, mutations in one gene reverse the effect of mutations in another gene, resulting in a wild-type phenotype
Synthetic mutations: 15:1 ratio, mutations in two different genes individually do not cause a phenotype but together result in a mutant phenotype

Chromosomal Rearrangements

Generally conserved within a species
Related species typically have distinct karyotypes

Types of Chromosomal Rearrangements

Deletions: loss of chromosomal segment
Duplications: duplication of chromosomal segment
Inversions: reversal of a segment within a chromosome
Translocations: exchange of segments between nonhomologous chromosomes

Origins of Chromosomal Rearrangements

Chromosome breakage can lead to all types of chromosomal rearrangements
Aberrant crossing over at repeated sequences can also result in rearrangements

Effects of Chromosomal Rearrangements

Can impact phenotypes, including viability, by altering gene balance
Severity of effects depends on whether the individual is homozygous or heterozygous for the rearranged chromosome
Can alter crossing over, impacting fertility

Deletions

Deletion loop forms in deletion heterozygotes
Recombination is restricted to homologous regions, preventing recombination within deletion loops
Genetic map distances are inaccurate in deletion heterozygotes

Duplications

Exons can duplicate or shuffle
Entire genes can duplicate, creating multigene families
Gene families can duplicate, producing gene superfamilies
Entire genomes can duplicate, doubling the number of genes and gene families

Inversions

Chromosome breakage can produce inversions
Inversions can disrupt genes
In inversion heterozygotes, an inversion loop forms to allow maximum alignment of homologous regions
Crossing over within the inversion loop produces aberrant recombinant chromatids

Pericentric Inversions

Pericentric inversions include the centromere
Recombinant chromatids are genetically unbalanced, leading to nonviable zygotes

Paracentric Inversions

Paracentric inversions do not include the centromere
One recombinant chromatid lacks a centromere, while the other has two centromeres
Nonviable zygotes result from the union of normal gametes with gametes carrying these abnormal chromatids

Translocations

Reciprocal translocations: exchange of segments between two nonhomologous chromosomes, resulting in two reciprocal translocations
Robertsonian translocations: breaks near centromeres of two acrocentric chromosomes, generating one large metacentric chromosome and one small chromosome, which is often lost

Phenotypic Effects of Reciprocal Translocations

Usually do not affect phenotype because they do not add or remove DNA
Can disrupt a gene or alter gene expression
In somatic cells, can lead to oncogene activation
Defects in translocation heterozygotes include:
- Unbalanced gametes, leading to reduced fertility
- Altered genetic map distances due to pseudolinkage

Translocation Homozygotes

Chromosomes segregate normally during meiosis I if breakpoints do not impact gene function

Translocation Heterozygotes

Chromosome pairing in translocation heterozygotes forms a cruciform structure during prophase I of meiosis

Semi-Sterility

Occurs in corn plants heterozygous for a reciprocal translocation or inversion
Slightly less than 50% of gametes are viable due to alternate segregation
Unbalanced ovules resulting from adjacent-1 or adjacent-2 segregation are aborted

Bacteria

Prokaryotes
Reproduce through binary fission, not meiosis or mitosis

Bacterial Genetic Traits

Prototroph: Wild-type bacterium that can synthesize essential nutrients
Auxotroph: Mutant bacterium that cannot synthesize certain nutrients and requires them for growth
Ability to use a carbon source: Wild-type bacteria can utilize specific carbon sources, while mutants may lack this ability

Cotransduction and Recombination Frequency

Cotransduction experiments determine the proximity of genes
Recombination frequency experiments determine the distance between genes

DNA Structure

Must be replicated accurately
Must contain information
Must be able to change (rarely)

DNA Building Blocks

Purines: adenine (A) and guanine (G)
Pyrimidines: cytosine (C), uracil (U), and thymine (T)
RNA contains two hydroxyl groups, while DNA contains one

Base Pairing

Equal amounts of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides
Equal amounts of adenine (A) and thymine (T), and cytosine (C) and guanine (G)
A+T does not necessarily equal G+C
GC-rich DNA is generally more stable than AT-rich DNA

Double Helix

Nucleotides consist of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a base
Nucleotides form DNA strands through phosphodiester linkages
The two sugar-phosphate backbones are antiparallel
DNA strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between purine and pyrimidine bases
A forms two hydrogen bonds with T, while G forms three hydrogen bonds with C

Semi-Conservative Replication

Two DNA strands unwind
Each strand acts as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand
Results in two identical double helices

DNA Replication

Synthesis occurs in the 5' to 3' direction
DNA polymerase catalyzes the process
Cleavage of pyrophosphate provides energy for DNA synthesis

DNA Replication Proteins

Single-strand DNA-binding proteins stabilize unwound DNA
Topoisomerase relaxes supercoiled DNA and rejoins DNA strands
Helicase disrupts hydrogen bonds between DNA strands
DNA polymerase III catalyzes DNA synthesis

Gel Electrophoresis

Used to separate DNA molecules based on size
An electrical field moves molecules through a gel matrix, with smaller DNA molecules traveling further
A molecular ladder provides known DNA sizes for comparison

Sanger Sequencing

Different from PCR because:
- Not exponential amplification
- Requires only one primer
- Uses ddNTPs along with dNTPs
Original method used four separate reactions
Automated Sanger sequencing utilizes all ddNTPs in one reaction with different colored fluorescent markers

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Test your knowledge on lethal alleles, penetrance, and expressivity in genetics. Explore how various factors influence phenotype expression and the role of gene interactions in pathways. Understand the complexities of genetic mutations and their effects on survival and phenotype.

Genetics Quiz: Lethal Alleles and Phenotype Expression

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