Questions and Answers
What governs newborns according to the content?
The id
What developmental process occurs when Anaya realizes planes and birds are not the same?
Accommodation
Which principle does the ego operate under?
The superego develops at around age 3.
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Freud proposed that humans are born with a series of innate, biologically based drives such as hunger, sex, and _____ .
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What can happen if children receive too little or too much gratification in the stages of psychosexual development?
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What can an individual who had too-strict toilet training as a toddler become?
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What is the focus of gratification in the oral stage?
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Castration anxiety is a concept related to a girl's fear of her father.
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According to Freud, what can result from fixation during psychosexual development?
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What is the average concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins?
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What is the period of development from conception to birth called?
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What is the term for the initial stage of prenatal development that lasts from conception through implantation?
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The passive genotype/environment correlation suggests that the environments provided by biological parents do not influence the child's development.
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During the period of the _____, virtually all major organs are formed.
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What is the term for the statistical estimate of the contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population?
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Which of the following stages is characterized by rapid growth and functional development of major organ systems?
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Match the following terms with their correct descriptions:
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What is the definition of the cephalocaudal principle?
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Natural selection is an evolutionary process proposed by Charles Darwin.
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The zygote contains a complete set of _____ chromosomes.
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What is the process known as when the blastocyst burrows into the uterine lining?
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What forms a watertight membrane around the developing embryo?
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The window of implantation typically lasts for about 72 hours.
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What is the primary function of the placenta during pregnancy?
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During which stage of Piaget's cognitive development do infants learn through their sensory and motor activity?
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Infants in the first substage engage in behaviors called ___ reflexes.
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What is the practice called when an infant repeatedly performs actions to achieve a desired outcome?
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Deferred imitation refers to the ability of infants to replicate actions immediately after seeing them.
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___ is the principle that one event causes another.
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According to Piaget, what cognitive process occurs when children incorporate new experiences into existing frameworks?
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What is the term for the ability to recognize relations among elements in a serial order?
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Piaget believed that cognitive growth occurs in sudden, discrete stages.
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What is the science of genetics?
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What is a zygote?
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What are the two types of twins?
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What is the function of DNA?
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Only males have Y chromosomes.
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At conception, a sperm with 23 chromosomes unites with an ovum with 23 chromosomes, producing a zygote with a full set of _____ chromosomes.
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What is meiosis?
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What are autosomes?
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What is the role of alleles?
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What is a mutation?
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Phenotype refers to the genetic endowment an individual inherits.
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What is meant by polygenic inheritance?
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What is epigenetics?
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Which of the following is an example of a chromosomal disorder?
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Study Notes
Hereditary Influences on Development
- Heredity is the study of the transmission of heritable characteristics from parents to offspring.
- Genotype: the genetic endowment that an individual inherits.
- Phenotype: the ways in which a person's genotype is expressed in observable or measurable characteristics.
The Genetic Material
- Chromosomes: threadlike structures made up of genes that contain the biochemical material for development.
- 46 chromosomes in the human body, divided into 23 pairs, with each member of a pair corresponding to the other in size, shape, and hereditary functions.
- One member of each pair comes from the mother's ovum, and the other from the father's sperm cell.
Conception and Genes
- Conception: the moment of fertilization, forming a zygote with 46 chromosomes.
- Zygote: a single cell formed at conception, containing the biochemical material for development.
- Meiosis: the process by which a germ cell divides, producing gametes (sperm or ova) that each contain half of the parent cell's original complement of chromosomes.
Independent Assortment and Crossing-Over
- Independent assortment: each pair of chromosomes segregates independently of all other chromosome pairs during meiosis.
- Crossing-over: the exchange of genetic material between pairs of chromosomes during meiosis, creating new and unique hereditary combinations.
Types of Twins
- Monozygotic (identical) twins: develop from a single zygote that later divides to form two genetically identical individuals.
- Dizygotic (fraternal) twins: develop from two separate zygotes, each formed by a different sperm and ovum, and are genetically different.
Chromosomes and Genes
- Chromosomes: coils of DNA that consist of smaller segments called genes, the functional units of heredity.
- Genes: hereditary blueprints for development that are transmitted unchanged from generation to generation.
- Autosomes: the 22 pairs of human chromosomes not related to sexual expression.
- Sex chromosomes: the 23rd pair of chromosomes, either XX in females or XY in males.
DNA and Heredity
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): a long, double-stranded molecule that makes up chromosomes.
- DNA structure: resembles a twisted ladder, with the rungs made of pairs of chemical units called bases.
Mitosis and Meiosis
- Mitosis: the process by which a cell duplicates its chromosomes and then divides into two genetically identical daughter cells.
- Meiosis: the process by which a germ cell divides, producing gametes (sperm or ova) that each contain half of the parent cell's original complement of chromosomes.
Mutations and Epigenesis
- Mutations: permanent alterations in genetic material that may produce harmful characteristics.
- Epigenesis: the phenomenon of genes being turned on or off as they are needed by the developing body or when triggered by the environment.### Genetics and Development
- Genes and Environment: Genes regulate the production of melanin in the iris, influencing eye color.
- Alleles: Alternative forms of a gene that can appear at a particular site on a chromosome.
- Heterozygote: An individual with one "bad" copy of a recessive gene and one "good" copy.
- Recessive Gene: A gene that will only be expressed if an individual has two copies of it.
- Dominant Gene: A gene that will be expressed if an individual has one or two copies of it.
Polygenic Traits and Development
- Polygenic Trait: A characteristic influenced by the action of many genes rather than a single pair.
- Human Development: The scientific study of processes of change and stability throughout the human life span.
- Heredity: Inborn traits or characteristics inherited from biological parents.
- Environment: Totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, influences on development.
- Epigenetics: The interaction between genes and the environment can alter gene expression, affecting development.
- Nature vs. Nurture: Development is a result of the dynamic interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental influences.
- Individual Differences: Variations in development among individuals are often due to the unique combination of hereditary factors and environmental contexts.
Genetic Abnormalities and Counseling
- Congenital Defect: A problem that is present (though not necessarily apparent) at birth; may stem from genetic and prenatal influences or from complications of the birth process.
- Down Syndrome: A chromosomal disorder characterized by moderate-to-severe mental retardation and physical signs.
- Phenylketonuria (PKU): A genetic disease in which the child is unable to metabolize phenylalanine; if left untreated, it soon causes hyperactivity and mental retardation.
- Genetic Counseling: A service designed to inform prospective parents about genetic diseases and help them determine the likelihood of transmitting such disorders to their children.
- Amniocentesis: A method of extracting amniotic fluid from a pregnant woman to test for chromosomal abnormalities and other genetic defects.
- Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS): An alternative to amniocentesis in which fetal cells are extracted from the chorion for prenatal tests.
Schizophrenia and Heritability
- Schizophrenia: A serious mental illness characterized by severe disturbances in logical thinking, emotional expression, and social behavior.
- Heritability: The amount of variability in a trait that is attributable to hereditary factors.
- Concordance Rate: The percentage of cases in which a particular attribute is present for one member of a twin pair if it is present for the other.
- Twin Design: A study in which sets of twins that differ in zygosity are compared to determine the heritability of an attribute.
- Adoption Design: A study in which adoptees are compared with their biological relatives and their adoptive relatives to estimate the heritability of an attribute or attributes.
Genotype-Environment Interaction
- Genotype-Environment Interaction: The effects of similar environmental conditions on genetically different individuals.
- Canalization: Limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics.
- Reaction Range: A range of potential expressions of a hereditary trait.
- Niche-Picking: The tendency of a person, especially after early childhood, to seek out environments compatible with their genotype.
- Ethology: The study of the bioevolutionary basis of behavior and development with a focus on survival of the individual.### Research Methods and Design
- Quantitative Research: deals with objectively measurable, numerical data that can answer questions such as "how much?" or "how many?" and is amenable to statistical analysis.
- Qualitative Research: focuses on exploring and understanding people's experiences, behaviors, and attitudes through non-numerical data such as text, images, and observations.
- Experimental Design: a rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other.
- Independent Variable: the condition over which the experimenter has direct control.
- Dependent Variable: the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable.
- Operational Definition: a definition stated solely in terms of the operations used to measure a phenomenon.
Developmental Psychology
- Cephalocaudal Principle: the upper parts of the body develop before the lower parts of the trunk.
- Gestation: the period of development between conception and birth.
- Gestational Age: the age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother's last menstrual cycle.
- Prenatal Development: divided into three major phases: the period of the zygote, the period of the embryo, and the period of the fetus.
Human Development Theories
- Mechanistic Model: views human development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli.
- Organismic Model: views human development as internally initiated by an active organism.
- Psychoanalytic Perspective: shaped by unconscious forces that motivate human behavior.
- Behaviorism: holds that changes in behavior result from experience or adaptation to the environment.
- Social Learning Theory: behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models.
- Cognitive Perspective: thought processes are central to development.
- Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective: focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of behavior.
Ethics of Research
- Beneficence: the obligation to maximize potential benefits to participants and to minimize potential harm.
- Respect for Participants' Autonomy: participants have the right to make their own decisions about participation and to withdraw at any time.
- Justice: the inclusion of diverse groups together with sensitivity to any special impact the research may have on them.
- Informed Consent: the right of research participants to receive a simple explanation of all aspects of research that may affect their willingness to participate.
- Confidentiality: the right of participants to conceal their identity with respect to the data that they provide.
- Protection from Harm: the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm.
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Description
Learn about the role of chromosomes and genes in psychology, including how they function in pairs and are made up of DNA.
