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Questions and Answers
What is the most common time for a miscarriage to occur?
At what age do infants typically begin to crawl?
Which sense is the least developed in newborns at birth?
What type of tastes do infants prefer at birth?
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How much does an infant typically weigh by the time they turn one year old compared to their birth weight?
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What is a significant cognitive ability that infants exhibit shortly after birth?
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What is synaptic pruning in relation to brain development?
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When do infants typically begin to show a preference for salty flavors?
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What key development milestone is achieved during the sensorimotor stage?
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Which of the following behaviors is typical of children in the preoperational stage?
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What is the main focus of Vygotsky's cognitive development theory?
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What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?
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A major characteristic of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is:
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What misconception is commonly associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder?
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According to Chess and Thomas, which temperament type is characterized by being adaptable and generally happy?
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Which cognitive ability is notably developed during the concrete operations stage?
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What is required for the inheritance of a recessive disorder?
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Which condition is caused by an extra chromosome 21?
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What is the primary characteristic of monozygotic twins?
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During which period does major organ development occur?
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What are teratogens primarily associated with?
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Which of the following best describes dizygotic twins?
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What significant change occurs during the fetal period of development?
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What ethical concern is associated with multiple pregnancies?
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What is the primary characteristic of adolescence?
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Which stage of moral reasoning is based on personal judgment according to Kohlberg's theory?
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What phenomenon describes adolescents' belief in their uniqueness and that others are constantly aware of them?
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Which aspect of brain development continues into the early 20s and is crucial for decision-making?
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What is a common outcome for adolescents who successfully navigate Erikson's stage of identity versus role confusion?
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Which of the following statements about herd immunity is true?
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According to critiques of Kohlberg's theory, which factor may introduce bias in moral perspectives?
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What type of conflicts are common between parents and adolescents?
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What is considered the starting point of adulthood in many cultures?
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What is the key psychosocial challenge for young adults according to Erikson's stages?
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Which theory of aging suggests that cellular damage is caused by unstable molecules?
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During which stage of adulthood is a decline in processing speed often observed?
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Which parenting style is known to produce the best outcomes for children?
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What common health issue tends to arise during middle age?
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What stage is NOT part of Kübler-Ross's five stages of response to death?
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What factor may influence the mourning practices in different cultures?
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Study Notes
Genetic Disorders
- Dominant disorders require only one parent to pass on the gene for the disorder to be inherited.
- Recessive disorders require both parents to pass on the gene for the disorder to be inherited.
- Huntington's disease is a dominant disorder.
- Cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell anemia, and PKU are recessive disorders.
Chromosome Disorders
- Down Syndrome occurs due to the presence of an extra chromosome 21, leading to intellectual disabilities and physical characteristics like almond-shaped eyes.
- Klinefelter syndrome (XXY) and Turner syndrome (monosomy X) are other chromosome disorders that affect physical and reproductive traits.
Fertilization
- Fertilization occurs when an ovum and sperm unite, forming a zygote with 46 chromosomes.
- The zygote divides through mitosis, eventually developing into a baby.
- Monozygotic twins are identical twins formed from one fertilized egg that splits into two.
- Dizygotic twins are fraternal twins that arise when two separate eggs are fertilized by different sperm.
- Multiple pregnancies can be high-risk and may lead to complications like premature birth.
Three Stages of Development
- The germinal period lasts for the first two weeks after fertilization. The zygote moves to the uterus and implants itself. The placenta and umbilical cord begin to form.
- The embryonic period lasts from two to eight weeks. During this period, the organism is called an embryo, and major organs and structures develop. Teratogens, harmful substances, can lead to birth defects during this critical stage.
- The fetal period lasts from eight weeks to birth. During this period, there is rapid growth and maturation of organs. The fetus increases significantly in size and weight.
- Specific times when environmental influences can adversely affect development are called critical periods.
- Miscarriage is most common in the first trimester and is often due to genetic defects.
Infant Growth
- After birth, infants undergo rapid physical and sensory development.
- Key systems, such as respiratory and digestive, adjust to life outside the womb.
- Infants may lose some weight initially due to adapting to feeding.
Motor Skills
- Infants develop significant motor skills from birth to age 2, including:
- Raising head and chest (2-4 months)
- Rolling over (2-5 months)
- Sitting up (4-7 months)
- Crawling (7-8 months)
- Walking (8-18 months)
Brain Development
- At birth, the brain has over 100 billion neurons, which grow rapidly and undergo synaptic pruning, enhancing functionality.
Sensory Development
- The sense of touch is well-developed at birth, and infants can differentiate their mother's milk scent from others shortly after birth.
- Infants prefer sweet tastes at birth and develop a preference for salty flavors by four months.
- Newborns can hear but need time for full auditory development; they respond best to high-pitched sounds.
- Vision is the least developed sense at birth, with poor color perception and visual acuity. Newborns see best at a distance of 7-10 inches, and their visual preferences lean towards complex patterns and human faces.
Early Cognitive Abilities
- Infants exhibit learning through reflexes and can recognize and react to changes in stimuli.
- Preferential looking and habituation are methods used to study infant cognitive capabilities.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
- Jean Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development:
- Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years): Infants learn through sensory and motor interactions. Key development includes object permanence.
- Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Children develop language and symbolic thought but struggle with logical reasoning. They exhibit egocentrism, animism, and centration, leading to difficulties with conservation.
- Concrete Operations Stage (7 to 12 years): Logical thinking develops, allowing for conservation and reversibility, though abstract thinking is still challenging.
- Formal Operations Stage (12 years to adulthood): Abstract and hypothetical reasoning emerges. Not all individuals reach this stage.
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
- Lev Vygotsky emphasized social interactions and cultural context in cognitive development.
- Scaffolding, support from more skilled individuals, helps learners gradually gain independence.
- The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the gap between what a child can do alone and with help.
- Vygotsky viewed private speech as a tool for cognitive advancement, contrasting Piaget's interpretation of it as egocentric.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
- ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by challenges in social skills, communication, and cognitive processing.
- A critical aspect of autism is the lack of "theory of mind," which hinders understanding others' perspectives.
- Research suggests a mix of genetic, environmental, and neurobiological factors contribute to ASD.
Temperament
- Temperament refers to inherent behavioral and emotional characteristics identifiable at birth.
- Chess and Thomas identified three main types of temperament:
- Easy: Regular in routines, adaptable, and generally happy.
- Difficult: Irregular in routines, slow to adapt, and often negative in mood.
- Slow-to-warm-up: Initially hesitant, but eventually adjust to new situations with repeated exposure.
Herd Immunity
- This immunity helps protect individuals who are not immune by reducing the disease's spread.
Adolescence
- Adolescence is the developmental stage from approximately ages 13 to early 20s, characterized by physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes.
- It is marked by the onset of puberty, which involves significant physical development and the maturation of sex characteristics.
- Adolescents are often not yet fully independent adults, and the duration of adolescence varies by individual.
Physical Development
- Puberty is the key marker of adolescence, involving hormonal changes that lead to physical growth and the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics.
- Brain development continues into the early 20s, particularly the prefrontal cortex, which is crucial for decision-making and impulse control. This incomplete development can lead to risk-taking behaviors common in adolescents.
Cognitive Development
- Cognitive growth includes advances in abstract thinking, as proposed by Piaget's formal operations stage.
- Adolescents begin to think hypothetically and develop moral reasoning.
- They often experience egocentrism, believing in their uniqueness (personal fable) and assuming others are constantly aware of them (imaginary audience).
Moral Development
- Kohlberg's theory outlines three levels of moral reasoning:
- Preconventional: Morality based on consequences.
- Conventional: Morality based on societal rules.
- Postconventional: Morality based on personal judgment.
- Critiques of Kohlberg's theory highlight potential biases, particularly regarding gender differences in moral perspectives, as proposed by Carol Gilligan.
Psychosocial Development
- Erikson's stage of identity versus role confusion describes the adolescent's quest for a stable sense of self.
- Successful navigation of this stage leads to resilience against peer pressure, while unresolved conflicts may result in confusion and dependence.
- Parent-teen conflicts are common and often revolve around trivial matters, though deeper moral agreements typically exist.
- This period is crucial for forming personal identity, impacting relationships and choices, including susceptibility to peer pressure and the pursuit of independence.
Defining Adulthood
- Adulthood spans from the early 20s to old age, but its exact start varies across cultures.
- Some consider it to begin after puberty, high school graduation, or even after college.
- Many developmental psychologists refer to "emerging adulthood" as the phase from late adolescence through the 20s, marked by childlessness, instability in living arrangements, and dependency on parents.
Physical Development
- Adulthood includes young adulthood, middle age, and late adulthood, with physical changes being gradual.
- Young adulthood (20s) is typically a peak health period, although aging signs begin to emerge, like wrinkles and declining senses by the 30s and 40s.
- Middle age sees further physical declines, such as weight gain, height loss, and hormonal changes (menopause for women, and andropause for men).
- Health issues like high blood pressure and heart disease often arise during this period.
Cognitive Development
- Cognitive abilities, particularly memory, change with age.
- While processing speed may decline in middle age, life experience compensates for this.
- Memory retrieval can become challenging due to stress and the accumulation of information.
- Engaging in mentally stimulating activities helps maintain cognitive health.
Psychosocial Development
- Erikson's stages highlight key psychosocial tasks in adulthood.
- Young adults grapple with intimacy versus isolation, seeking deep connections while maintaining individuality.
- Middle adults focus on generativity versus stagnation, aiming to contribute to the next generation.
- Effective parenting styles include authoritative (balanced approach), authoritarian (rigid), and permissive (lax), with authoritative generally yielding the best outcomes for children.
Theories of Aging
- Four theories explain aging:
- The cellular-clock theory (limited cell reproduction)
- The wear-and-tear theory (damage from stress and use)
- The free-radical theory (cellular damage from unstable molecules)
- The activity theory (positive adjustment through active engagement)
Stages of Death and Dying
- Kübler-Ross outlines five stages of response to death: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
- Cultural practices surrounding death, such as family involvement in Hindu traditions, influence the dying process and mourning practices.
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Description
Test your knowledge on genetic disorders and chromosome abnormalities. This quiz covers the distinctions between dominant and recessive disorders, as well as specific conditions like Down Syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome. Additionally, explore the concepts surrounding fertilization, including twin types.
