General Psychology Schools of Thought

General Psychology

• Schools of Thought:
  • Structuralism: First school proposed by Wilhelm Wundt, focused on the inner workings of the mind. Major thinkers: Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener.
  • Functionalism: Heavily influenced by William James, emphasizing the function of the mind in adapting.
  • Behaviorism: Proposed by John B. Watson, suggesting all behaviors are explained by environmental forces rather than internal ones (focus on overt behavior).
  • Gestalt: Originated in Germany/Austria in the 19th century. Believed behavior is a unified whole, not just separate parts.
  • Psychoanalysis: Founded by Sigmund Freud; influenced by the unconscious mind. Key proponents include Anna Freud, Erik Erikson, Karen Horney, Otto Rank, and Alfred Adler.
  • Humanistic: Founded by Carl Rogers. Contrasts psychoanalysis and behaviorism; focuses on free will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization.
  • Cognitive: Studies mental processes.

The Scientific Method

• Method for acquiring knowledge.
  • Steps: Defining a problem, collecting data, analyzing, drawing conclusions.

Research Design and Strategy

• Descriptive Research:
  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in natural settings.
  • Case Study: In-depth study of a single person or case.
  • Correlation Research: Studying the relationship between variables.
  • Experimental Research: Determining cause-and-effect relationships; manipulating variables.
  • Quasi-Experimental: Research not fully experimental but looks for a relationship between IV/DV.

Research Ethics

• Professional Responsibility to Society: Adhering to high ethical standards fostering social structures benefiting all people.
• Respect for Dignity of People: Recognizing diversity among individuals and peoples.
• Competence in Caring for Well-being of Persons and Peoples: Maximizing benefits, minimizing harm to individuals, families, groups, and communities.
• Confidentiality: Maintaining sensitive information.

Biopsychology

• Nervous System: Body's electrochemical communication system.

  • Neuroscience: Study of the structure and function of the nervous system.

• Neuron Structure:

  • Small information processors.
  • Dendrites: Input sites, receive signals from other neurons.
  • Soma: Cell body.
  • Axon: Major extension, transmits signals electrically.
  • Terminal Buttons: Contain synaptic vesicles (neurotransmitters).
  • Synapse: Tiny junctions.
  • Myelin Sheath: Fatty insulation, speeds signal transmission.

• Parts of the Nervous System:

  • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
  • Peripheral Nervous System: Connects CNS to the body.

Subdivision of PNS

• Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary movements.
• Autonomic Nervous System: Involuntary processes, heart rate, digestion etc.
  • Sympathetic: Stress response.
  • Parasympathetic: Rest and rejuvenation

Neurotransmitters

• Acetylcholine: Muscle action, memory
• Beta-Endorphin: Pain, pleasure
• Dopamine: Mood, sleep, learning
• GABA: Brain function, sleep, decreased tension
• Glutamate: Memory, learning, increased learning
• Norepinephrine: Heart, intestines, alertness
• Serotonin: Mood, sleep.

Psychotropic Medications

• Chemicals that mimic neurotransmitters, restore balance.
• Agonist - mimics neurotransmitter behavior
• Antagonist - blocks a neurotransmitter from receptor

Lifespan Development

• Prenatal Development: Stages - Germinal, Embryonic, Fetal
  • Teratogens: Agents causing damage to a developing embryo or fetus (alcohol, drugs).
• Infancy Through Childhood: Reflexes are important for survival.
• Adolescence: Puberty starts to emergence adulthood.
• Emerging Adulthood: Identity exploration.
• Adulthood: Early, middle, late stages each have developmental tasks.

Cognitive Development (Piaget)

• Sensorimotor (0-2): Experiences based on reflexes, senses and motor response.
• Preoperational (2-7): Language emerges; egocentric thinking.
• Concrete Operational (7-11): Develop logic.
• Formal Operational (12+): Abstract reasoning, deductive reasoning.

Sensation and Perception

• Sensation: Sensory receptors detecting stimuli; conversion to nerve impulses. Components: Cones & Rods and Hair cells.
• Perception: Interpreting sensory information based on experience, and knowledge. Bottom up vs Top down. Bottom-up: building perceptions from input; top-down: interpreting sensations using past experience.
• Sensory Receptors: Specialized neurons detecting specific stimuli.
• Sensation Stages of Sleep:
  • Non Rapid Eye Movement (NREM): most physiological functions are markedly lower than in wakefulness.
  • Rapid Eye Movement (REM): Physiological activity levels similar to wakefulness.
• Memory: An information processing system.
  • Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory events.
  • Short-Term Memory (STM) : Temporary storage, processing, called working memory.
  • Long-Term Memory (LTM) : Continuous storage, capacity is limitless.

Psychological Disorders

• Anxiety Disorders: Excessive, persistent fear and anxiety, related behavioral disturbances.
• Phobia: Excessive, distressing, persistent fear about a specific object or situation.
• Panic Disorder: Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks; worry about additional attacks and their consequences.
• Mood Disorders: Significant mood disturbances; affects daily life.

Dissociative Disorders

• Dissociative Amnesia: Inability to recall important personal information, usually due to trauma.
• Dissociative Fugue: Wandering; confusion about identity; adopting a new identity.

Figure 1: EEG Brain Waves during Sleep

• Different stages of sleep are characterized by different patterns of brain waves.
• Delta: Deep sleep, healing
• Theta: Deep meditation, REM sleep, dreaming
• Alpha: Light meditation, relaxation, creativity, information absorption
• Beta: problem-solving, focused attention, cognitive thinking
• Gamma: higher-level cognitive processing.