Questions and Answers
What type of intermolecular force is the strongest among the listed forces (Keesom, Debye, London)?
H-bonding is an example of intramolecular force.
False
The _____ orientation is responsible for the Debye-Induced Dipole force.
Keesom
Explain the difference between lone pair and bond pair electrons.
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Match the following types of ions with their charges:
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What is the formula for Boyle's Law (Boyle-Mariotte Law)?
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What does Charles's Law state?
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What is the formula for Gay-Lussac's Law?
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What is the formula for the Ideal Gas Law?
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State Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures.
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Explain Graham's Law of Effusion and Diffusion.
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What is Henry's Law of Gas Solubility?
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What is the minimum amount of energy required to initiate a chemical reaction?
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Which factor directly affects the reaction rate by increasing surface area and reducing particle size?
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Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by increasing the activation energy.
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In chemical equilibrium, the value of Keq is 1 when there is ___ shift.
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Match the following acid-base properties:
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According to Lewis Theory, which of the following is true about Lewis's acid?
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Hard acid and hard base interactions result in covalent complexes.
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What does Ksp represent in solubility product constant?
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Lewis's base is also known as a ____________.
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Match the following elements with their respective groups:
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What is the state of matter where chemical compounds always contain the exact proportion of elements in a fixed ratio (by mass)?
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What is the law that states that when two elements form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in a simple whole-number ratio?
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Is a plasma state of matter the most abundant state of matter?
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The law of conservation of mass states that mass/matter is always _______________________.
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What is the process of changing from a liquid to a gas?
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What is the difference between an element and a compound?
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Is the atomic number the same as the atomic mass?
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The law of definite proportions was discovered by _______________________.
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What is the term for the arrangement of electrons in an atom?
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What is the difference between isotopes and isobars?
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Which unit is used to measure the amount of exposure to radiation?
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Radioactive isotopes always decay in a predictable manner.
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What type of radiation is observed when a nuclide decays to its ground state with the emission of high-energy electromagnetic radiation?
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Beta decay is the emission of an ________ from a nucleus.
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Match the following types of decay with their definitions:
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Study Notes
Matter and Its Classification
- Matter can exist in four states: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma/ionized gas.
- Solids have a definite shape and volume, liquids assume the container shape, and gases have an indefinite shape and volume.
- Plasma is the most abundant state of matter, with positively charged ions and negatively charged free electrons.
Laws of Chemical Combinations
- Law of Definite Proportions: a chemical compound always contains the same proportion of elements by mass.
- Law of Multiple Proportions: when two elements form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in a simple whole-number ratio.
Atomic Structure
- Democritus: matter is composed of indivisible atoms.
- John Dalton: atoms are indivisible, indestructible, and have a specific mass and properties.
- J.J. Thomson: electrons are negatively charged particles in a positively charged framework.
- Ernest Rutherford: atoms have a nucleus with positively charged protons and neutrons, and negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus.
- Niels Bohr: electrons occupy specific energy levels (orbitals) around the nucleus.
Matter Classification
- Pure substances: elements (simplest form of a substance) and compounds (two or more elements chemically united).
- Mixtures: two or more substances where individual substances retain their identities.
Phase Changes
- Melting: solid to liquid (fusion or liquefaction).
- Freezing: liquid to solid.
- Evaporation: liquid to gas.
- Condensation: gas to liquid.
- Sublimation: solid to gas.
- Deposition: gas to solid.
Fundamental Chemistry Laws
- Law of Conservation of Mass: matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
- Law of Constant Proportions: a chemical compound always contains the same proportion of elements by mass.
Atomic Properties
- Atomic number: the number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
- Atomic mass: the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.
- Electrons: negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus.
- Neutrons: particles with no charge in the nucleus.
Chemical Bonds
- Molecule: an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds.
- Ions: particles with a net positive or negative charge.
- Empirical formula: the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a molecule.
Intermolecular Forces
- Van der Waals forces: weak forces between molecules.
- Hydrogen bonding: a strong intermolecular force between molecules with hydrogen atoms bonded to electronegative atoms.
- Dipole-dipole forces: forces between molecules with a permanent dipole moment.
Chemical Reactions
- Synthesis: a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a new compound.
- Decomposition: a reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances.
- Single Displacement: a reaction in which one element displaces another element from a compound.
- Double Displacement: a reaction in which two compounds exchange partners.
Mole Relationships
- Avogadro's number: 6.022 x 10^23 atoms or molecules per mole.
- Mole: a unit of measurement equal to 6.022 x 10^23 atoms or molecules.
- Molarity: the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
- Molality: the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
- Normality: the number of equivalents of solute per liter of solution.### Ionic Compounds
- Pb(NO3)4 is an example of an ionic compound, also known as Plumbic nitrate or Lead(IV) nitrate.
- Monovalent ions:
- Group 1 (H, Li, Na, K, Ag) have a +1 charge.
- Group 2 (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Zn, Cd) have a +2 charge.
- Group 6A (Oxide, Sulfide) have a -2 charge.
- Group 7A (Fluoride, Chloride, Bromide, Iodide) have a -1 charge.
Aufbau Principle
- Atoms may be built by progressive filling of energy levels, with lower energy levels being occupied first.
- The order of filling is: s, p, d, f.
Quantum Theories
- Pauli's Exclusion Principle: No two electrons will have the same set of quantum numbers.
- Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: It is impossible to accurately determine both the position and momentum of a particle at the same time.
- Hund's Rule: Orbitals are filled up singly before pairing up, with the most stable arrangement being the one with the greatest number of parallel spins.
Gas Laws
- Boyle's Law: P₁V₁ = P₂V₂
- Charles' Law: V₁ / T₁ = V₂ / T₂
- Gay-Lussac's Law: P₁ / T₁ = P₂ / T₂
- Combined Gas Law: P₁V₁ / T₁ = P₂V₂ / T₂
- Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT
Quantum Numbers
- Principal Quantum Number (n): main energy level, size of orbital, and distance from the nucleus.
- Azimuthal Quantum Number (ℓ): angular momentum, shape of orbital, and subshell.
- Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ): orientation of orbital in space.
- Magnetic Spin (ms): magnetic moment, spin, and rotation.
Gas Laws Applications
- Avogadro's Law: equal volumes of different gases have the same number of moles at STP.
- Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures: total pressure in a mixture of non-interacting gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each gas.
- Graham's Law of Effusion: rate of effusion is inversely proportional to the square root of the density of the gas.
- Henry's Law of Gas Solubility: the pressure of a gas is proportional to its solubility in a liquid.
Thermodynamics
- Temperature: expressed in Kelvin (K), Celsius (°C), or Fahrenheit (°F).
- Internal Energy (U): total energy of a system.
- Enthalpy (H): total energy of a system, including heat.
- Entropy (S): measure of disorder or randomness in a system.
- Gibb's Free Energy (G): a measure of the energy available to do work.
Solutions
- Colligative Properties: dependent on the amount of solute present in the solution.
- Vapor Pressure Lowering: Raoult's Law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is dependent on the amount of nonvolatile solute added.
- Boiling Point Elevation: the boiling point of a solution is increased by the addition of a nonvolatile solute.
- Freezing Point Depression: the freezing point of a solution is decreased by the addition of a nonvolatile solute.
- Osmotic Pressure: the pressure needed to stop osmosis.
Chemical Kinetics
- Reaction Rate: the change in concentration of a reactant or product over time.
- Rate Law: expresses the relationship between the rate of reaction and the concentration of reactants.
- Factors Affecting Reaction Rate: nature of reactants, concentration of reactants, surface area, temperature, and catalysts.
- Reaction Rate Theories: Collision Theory, Transition Theory, and Activation Energy.
Chemical Equilibrium
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Law of Mass Action: the reaction rate is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants to the power of their coefficients.
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Equilibrium Constant (K): a measure of the ratio of the concentrations of products to reactants at equilibrium.### Equilibrium and Le Chatelier's Principle
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Equilibrium: Keq = a/b (at a given temperature, the ratio of concentration of products to reactants)
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Keq > 1: favors product formation (to the right or forward reaction)
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Keq < 1: favors reactant formation (to the left or backward or reverse reaction)
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Le Chatelier's Principle: if an external stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system adjusts to partially offset the stress as it reaches a new equilibrium
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External stressors: concentration, pressure, and volume (for gases only), temperature, and the presence of a catalyst
Acid and Base Theories
- Arrhenius Theory: acids liberate H+ ions, bases liberate OH- ions
- Bronsted-Lowry Theory: acids donate H+ ions, bases accept H+ ions
- Lewis Theory: acids are electron pair acceptors, bases are electron pair donors
Ionic Equilibria
- Ion product constant (Q) is computed based on initial concentration
- Q < Ksp: unsaturated, Q = Ksp: saturated, Q > Ksp: supersaturated
Solubility Product Constant (Ksp)
- Ksp is a measure of the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent
- Solubility (g/L) is the number of grams of solute dissolved in 1L of saturated solution
- Molar solubility (mol/L) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1L of saturated solution
Electrochemistry
- Study of the production of electricity from energy released during spontaneous and nonspontaneous chemical reactions
- Spontaneous: voltaic cells/galvanic cells (e.g., REDOX reaction, electrons migrate from anode to cathode)
- Nonspontaneous: electrolytic cells (e.g., electric current is applied to remove e- and transfer to another cell)
Periodic Table
- Antoine Lavoisier: first extensive list of elements (~ 33)
- Metals vs Nonmetals: oxides, reducing/oxidizing agents, conductivity, malleability, ductility, metallic luster, and state at room temperature (RT)
- Periods/Horizontal rows: 7, Groups/Vertical columns: 18, Actinides and Lanthanides: inner transition elements (f block)
Periodic Trends
- Ionization energy: energy needed to remove outermost electron in a neutral atom (increases from left to right and bottom to top)
- Electron affinity: energy given off when a neutral atom gains an extra electron (increases from left to right and bottom to top)
- Electronegativity: ability of an atom to attract an electron pair to itself (increases from left to right and bottom to top)
Radioactivity
- Spontaneous emission of particles/ionizing radiation by unstable nuclei of heavier elements (p+-to-n0 ratio, atomic number 92 and above: transuranic elements)
- Units: Curie (Ci), Becquerel (Bq), R.E.M. (roentgen equivalent in man), Rad/gray
- Types of radioactive emissions: alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ)
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Description
Introduction to general chemistry, covering topics such as matter, chemical compounds, and properties of solids and liquids.