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General Chemistry Module 1
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General Chemistry Module 1

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@GlowingHurdyGurdy

Questions and Answers

What type of intermolecular force is the strongest among the listed forces (Keesom, Debye, London)?

  • Debye (D-ID)
  • Keesom (D-D) (correct)
  • London (ID-ID)

    • H-bonding is an example of intramolecular force.

    False

    The _____ orientation is responsible for the Debye-Induced Dipole force.

    Keesom

    Explain the difference between lone pair and bond pair electrons.

    <p>Lone pair electrons are non-bonding pairs of electrons that are not shared with another atom, while bond pair electrons are shared between two atoms in a covalent bond.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of ions with their charges:

    <p>Monohydrogen/bi = +1 with 1H+ ions Hypochlorite = ClO- Bicarbonate = HCO3- Dihydrogen = +2 with 2H+ ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for Boyle's Law (Boyle-Mariotte Law)?

    <p>P₁V₁ = P₂V₂ or P ∝ 1/V</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Charles's Law state?

    <p>V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂ or V ∝ T</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for Gay-Lussac's Law?

    <p>P₁/T₁ = P₂/T₂ or P ∝ T</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for the Ideal Gas Law?

    <p>PV = nRT</p> Signup and view all the answers

    State Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures.

    <p>Pt = P1 + P2 + P3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain Graham's Law of Effusion and Diffusion.

    <p>Rate of effusion/diffusion is inversely proportional to the square root of gas density, under constant temperature and pressure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Henry's Law of Gas Solubility?

    <p>Partial pressure of a gas is proportional to its solubility in a liquid.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the minimum amount of energy required to initiate a chemical reaction?

    <p>Activation energy (Ea)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor directly affects the reaction rate by increasing surface area and reducing particle size?

    <p>Surface Area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by increasing the activation energy.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In chemical equilibrium, the value of Keq is 1 when there is ___ shift.

    <p>no</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following acid-base properties:

    <p>Taste = Sour / Bitter pH = 7 / Varies</p> <ul> <li>Litmus paper = Red / Blue</li> <li>Metals = H2 gas / Non-corrosive Common Ion Effect = Equilibrium shift / Suppressed ionization</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Lewis Theory, which of the following is true about Lewis's acid?

    <p>Is an electron pair acceptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hard acid and hard base interactions result in covalent complexes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Ksp represent in solubility product constant?

    <p>Solubility product constant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lewis's base is also known as a ____________.

    <p>nucleophile</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following elements with their respective groups:

    <p>Hg = Transition elements (d block) Ne = Inert/ Noble/ Stable Gases Cu = Coinage Metals F = Halogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the state of matter where chemical compounds always contain the exact proportion of elements in a fixed ratio (by mass)?

    <p>Plasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the law that states that when two elements form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in a simple whole-number ratio?

    <p>Law of Multiple Proportion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Is a plasma state of matter the most abundant state of matter?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The law of conservation of mass states that mass/matter is always _______________________.

    <p>constant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of changing from a liquid to a gas?

    <p>Evaporation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between an element and a compound?

    <p>An element is the simplest form of a substance, while a compound is made up of two or more chemical elements united by chemical bonds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Is the atomic number the same as the atomic mass?

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The law of definite proportions was discovered by _______________________.

    <p>Joseph Proust</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the arrangement of electrons in an atom?

    <p>Electron cloud</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between isotopes and isobars?

    <p>Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different atomic masses, while isobars are atoms with the same atomic mass but different atomic numbers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which unit is used to measure the amount of exposure to radiation?

    <p>Gray</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Radioactive isotopes always decay in a predictable manner.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of radiation is observed when a nuclide decays to its ground state with the emission of high-energy electromagnetic radiation?

    <p>Gamma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Beta decay is the emission of an ________ from a nucleus.

    <p>electron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of decay with their definitions:

    <p>Alpha decay = The emission of an alpha particle from the nucleus Beta decay = The emission of an electron from a nucleus Gamma emission = Decay to the ground state with the emission of high-energy electromagnetic radiation Positron emission = The emission of a positron from the nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Matter and Its Classification

    • Matter can exist in four states: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma/ionized gas.
    • Solids have a definite shape and volume, liquids assume the container shape, and gases have an indefinite shape and volume.
    • Plasma is the most abundant state of matter, with positively charged ions and negatively charged free electrons.

    Laws of Chemical Combinations

    • Law of Definite Proportions: a chemical compound always contains the same proportion of elements by mass.
    • Law of Multiple Proportions: when two elements form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in a simple whole-number ratio.

    Atomic Structure

    • Democritus: matter is composed of indivisible atoms.
    • John Dalton: atoms are indivisible, indestructible, and have a specific mass and properties.
    • J.J. Thomson: electrons are negatively charged particles in a positively charged framework.
    • Ernest Rutherford: atoms have a nucleus with positively charged protons and neutrons, and negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus.
    • Niels Bohr: electrons occupy specific energy levels (orbitals) around the nucleus.

    Matter Classification

    • Pure substances: elements (simplest form of a substance) and compounds (two or more elements chemically united).
    • Mixtures: two or more substances where individual substances retain their identities.

    Phase Changes

    • Melting: solid to liquid (fusion or liquefaction).
    • Freezing: liquid to solid.
    • Evaporation: liquid to gas.
    • Condensation: gas to liquid.
    • Sublimation: solid to gas.
    • Deposition: gas to solid.

    Fundamental Chemistry Laws

    • Law of Conservation of Mass: matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
    • Law of Constant Proportions: a chemical compound always contains the same proportion of elements by mass.

    Atomic Properties

    • Atomic number: the number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
    • Atomic mass: the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.
    • Electrons: negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus.
    • Neutrons: particles with no charge in the nucleus.

    Chemical Bonds

    • Molecule: an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds.
    • Ions: particles with a net positive or negative charge.
    • Empirical formula: the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a molecule.

    Intermolecular Forces

    • Van der Waals forces: weak forces between molecules.
    • Hydrogen bonding: a strong intermolecular force between molecules with hydrogen atoms bonded to electronegative atoms.
    • Dipole-dipole forces: forces between molecules with a permanent dipole moment.

    Chemical Reactions

    • Synthesis: a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a new compound.
    • Decomposition: a reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances.
    • Single Displacement: a reaction in which one element displaces another element from a compound.
    • Double Displacement: a reaction in which two compounds exchange partners.

    Mole Relationships

    • Avogadro's number: 6.022 x 10^23 atoms or molecules per mole.
    • Mole: a unit of measurement equal to 6.022 x 10^23 atoms or molecules.
    • Molarity: the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
    • Molality: the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
    • Normality: the number of equivalents of solute per liter of solution.### Ionic Compounds
    • Pb(NO3)4 is an example of an ionic compound, also known as Plumbic nitrate or Lead(IV) nitrate.
    • Monovalent ions:
      • Group 1 (H, Li, Na, K, Ag) have a +1 charge.
      • Group 2 (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Zn, Cd) have a +2 charge.
      • Group 6A (Oxide, Sulfide) have a -2 charge.
      • Group 7A (Fluoride, Chloride, Bromide, Iodide) have a -1 charge.

    Aufbau Principle

    • Atoms may be built by progressive filling of energy levels, with lower energy levels being occupied first.
    • The order of filling is: s, p, d, f.

    Quantum Theories

    • Pauli's Exclusion Principle: No two electrons will have the same set of quantum numbers.
    • Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: It is impossible to accurately determine both the position and momentum of a particle at the same time.
    • Hund's Rule: Orbitals are filled up singly before pairing up, with the most stable arrangement being the one with the greatest number of parallel spins.

    Gas Laws

    • Boyle's Law: P₁V₁ = P₂V₂
    • Charles' Law: V₁ / T₁ = V₂ / T₂
    • Gay-Lussac's Law: P₁ / T₁ = P₂ / T₂
    • Combined Gas Law: P₁V₁ / T₁ = P₂V₂ / T₂
    • Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT

    Quantum Numbers

    • Principal Quantum Number (n): main energy level, size of orbital, and distance from the nucleus.
    • Azimuthal Quantum Number (ℓ): angular momentum, shape of orbital, and subshell.
    • Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ): orientation of orbital in space.
    • Magnetic Spin (ms): magnetic moment, spin, and rotation.

    Gas Laws Applications

    • Avogadro's Law: equal volumes of different gases have the same number of moles at STP.
    • Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures: total pressure in a mixture of non-interacting gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each gas.
    • Graham's Law of Effusion: rate of effusion is inversely proportional to the square root of the density of the gas.
    • Henry's Law of Gas Solubility: the pressure of a gas is proportional to its solubility in a liquid.

    Thermodynamics

    • Temperature: expressed in Kelvin (K), Celsius (°C), or Fahrenheit (°F).
    • Internal Energy (U): total energy of a system.
    • Enthalpy (H): total energy of a system, including heat.
    • Entropy (S): measure of disorder or randomness in a system.
    • Gibb's Free Energy (G): a measure of the energy available to do work.

    Solutions

    • Colligative Properties: dependent on the amount of solute present in the solution.
    • Vapor Pressure Lowering: Raoult's Law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is dependent on the amount of nonvolatile solute added.
    • Boiling Point Elevation: the boiling point of a solution is increased by the addition of a nonvolatile solute.
    • Freezing Point Depression: the freezing point of a solution is decreased by the addition of a nonvolatile solute.
    • Osmotic Pressure: the pressure needed to stop osmosis.

    Chemical Kinetics

    • Reaction Rate: the change in concentration of a reactant or product over time.
    • Rate Law: expresses the relationship between the rate of reaction and the concentration of reactants.
    • Factors Affecting Reaction Rate: nature of reactants, concentration of reactants, surface area, temperature, and catalysts.
    • Reaction Rate Theories: Collision Theory, Transition Theory, and Activation Energy.

    Chemical Equilibrium

    • Law of Mass Action: the reaction rate is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants to the power of their coefficients.

    • Equilibrium Constant (K): a measure of the ratio of the concentrations of products to reactants at equilibrium.### Equilibrium and Le Chatelier's Principle

    • Equilibrium: Keq = a/b (at a given temperature, the ratio of concentration of products to reactants)

    • Keq > 1: favors product formation (to the right or forward reaction)

    • Keq < 1: favors reactant formation (to the left or backward or reverse reaction)

    • Le Chatelier's Principle: if an external stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system adjusts to partially offset the stress as it reaches a new equilibrium

    • External stressors: concentration, pressure, and volume (for gases only), temperature, and the presence of a catalyst

    Acid and Base Theories

    • Arrhenius Theory: acids liberate H+ ions, bases liberate OH- ions
    • Bronsted-Lowry Theory: acids donate H+ ions, bases accept H+ ions
    • Lewis Theory: acids are electron pair acceptors, bases are electron pair donors

    Ionic Equilibria

    • Ion product constant (Q) is computed based on initial concentration
    • Q < Ksp: unsaturated, Q = Ksp: saturated, Q > Ksp: supersaturated

    Solubility Product Constant (Ksp)

    • Ksp is a measure of the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent
    • Solubility (g/L) is the number of grams of solute dissolved in 1L of saturated solution
    • Molar solubility (mol/L) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1L of saturated solution

    Electrochemistry

    • Study of the production of electricity from energy released during spontaneous and nonspontaneous chemical reactions
    • Spontaneous: voltaic cells/galvanic cells (e.g., REDOX reaction, electrons migrate from anode to cathode)
    • Nonspontaneous: electrolytic cells (e.g., electric current is applied to remove e- and transfer to another cell)

    Periodic Table

    • Antoine Lavoisier: first extensive list of elements (~ 33)
    • Metals vs Nonmetals: oxides, reducing/oxidizing agents, conductivity, malleability, ductility, metallic luster, and state at room temperature (RT)
    • Periods/Horizontal rows: 7, Groups/Vertical columns: 18, Actinides and Lanthanides: inner transition elements (f block)
    • Ionization energy: energy needed to remove outermost electron in a neutral atom (increases from left to right and bottom to top)
    • Electron affinity: energy given off when a neutral atom gains an extra electron (increases from left to right and bottom to top)
    • Electronegativity: ability of an atom to attract an electron pair to itself (increases from left to right and bottom to top)

    Radioactivity

    • Spontaneous emission of particles/ionizing radiation by unstable nuclei of heavier elements (p+-to-n0 ratio, atomic number 92 and above: transuranic elements)
    • Units: Curie (Ci), Becquerel (Bq), R.E.M. (roentgen equivalent in man), Rad/gray
    • Types of radioactive emissions: alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ)

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    Introduction to general chemistry, covering topics such as matter, chemical compounds, and properties of solids and liquids.

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