Gender Norms and Biological Differences

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Questions and Answers

What concept explains the poor performance of women on math tests, as demonstrated by Claude Steele?

Motivation deficit

Biological predisposition

Cognitive bias

Stereotype threat (correct)

In Steele's study, which factor contributed to the difference in performance between women in math and literature tests?

Variation in student motivation

The difficulty of the tests

Biological differences in aptitude

Stereotypes associated with the subjects (correct)

What did Steele find about women’s performance on difficult literature tests compared to math tests?

Women performed equally in both literature and math tests

Women performed worse than men in both tests

Women performed equally as well as men in literature but worse in math (correct)

Women performed better than men in both tests

What environmental factor influencing math performance is highlighted in the content?

Coursework and experience with math Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, how does stereotype threat affect women’s performance in math?

It creates anxiety that lowers their performance. Signup and view all the answers

What argument does Norman Geschwind make regarding gender differences in math ability?

Prenatal exposure to testosterone may enhance math skills in boys. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is NOT supported by the content?

Women underperform in literature because of stereotype threat. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the distribution of performance among males and females according to the content?

There is a significant overlap in the performance ranges. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main finding of Crandall's study regarding binge eating and popularity among women?

Women who binged at the mean level of the group were the most popular. Signup and view all the answers

What specific norm is mentioned regarding language use that has been historically accepted?

Using 'he' or 'man' to refer to both genders. Signup and view all the answers

What did Henley's research indicate about the interpretation of the generic 'he'?

Readers believed the character referred to was a man. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is most influential in the survival of offspring according to the provided information?

Paternal involvement Signup and view all the answers

What impact did the use of unbiased language have in Hamilton & Henley's study?

Female participants performed better on questions after hearing unbiased language. Signup and view all the answers

What did Buss conclude about mate preferences across cultures?

Men seek physically attractive mates. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of anatomy textbook drawings had overtly masculine characteristics according to Giacomini et al. (1986)?

64% Signup and view all the answers

What does the file drawer problem refer to in research concerning gender differences?

A bias towards highlighting studies that find gender similarities. Signup and view all the answers

In the nature vs. nurture debate, which of the following refers to biological influences?

Nature Signup and view all the answers

Which consequence was observed when students read essays written using the generic 'he'?

Their recall of the content was poorer. Signup and view all the answers

Which organization has taken a stance against sexist language in its publications?

American Psychological Association (APA) Signup and view all the answers

What is one dimension over which females and males differ according to Myers?

Independence vs. connectedness Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about female mate preferences is prematurely assumed?

Beautiful women are more fertile than unattractive women. Signup and view all the answers

What did the research regarding norms in fraternities suggest about drinking behaviors?

Norms related to binge eating in women are also found in drinking behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What challenge exists when identifying the cause of gender differences?

Difficulty in distinguishing biology from environment. Signup and view all the answers

What societal constraint is mentioned regarding women's initiation of sex?

Cultural taboos Signup and view all the answers

What indicates that biology alone isn’t responsible for gender differences?

Gender differences appear only in adolescence. Signup and view all the answers

How do mothers typically evaluate their daughters compared to their sons?

Mothers rate daughters more favorably despite equal performance. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the influence of values in gender differences research?

Values can shape the way research is framed. Signup and view all the answers

What is one way that societal influences can directly affect individuals?

Through government policies. Signup and view all the answers

What crucial aspect about gender differences is emphasized in the content?

There are more differences within genders than between them. Signup and view all the answers

What was a major flaw in the research conducted by nineteenth-century scientists regarding gender differences?

They framed their research to anticipate desired results. Signup and view all the answers

How does the phrasing of research questions potentially affect results?

It can influence the responses given by participants. Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario illustrates an indirect influence of societal factors on an individual?

Hearing about a job position from multiple sources. Signup and view all the answers

What type of conformity did participants in Sherif's autokinetic effect study display?

Private acceptance Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason for the difference in conformity rates between Sherif's and Asch's studies?

The clarity of physical reality in each study Signup and view all the answers

What does social comparison theory suggest about human behavior?

In ambiguous situations, individuals seek social feedback Signup and view all the answers

What did Asch's study demonstrate concerning participants' beliefs?

Participants did not believe the answers they provided Signup and view all the answers

What effect does normative social pressure have on individuals in a group setting?

It leads to increased public compliance to avoid rejection Signup and view all the answers

What is one key characteristic of social reality as discussed in the context of conformity?

It greatly influences behavior in the absence of objective standards Signup and view all the answers

In Sherif's study, why couldn't participants ascertain the correctness of their judgments?

There were no clear physical reality cues available Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of Schacter's 'Johnny Rocco' study?

The decision-making process about a fictitious delinquent Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of Confederate 2 in the group dynamic?

Always disagrees with the group Signup and view all the answers

Reward power is a type of influence that provides positive reinforcement for change.

True Signup and view all the answers

What four steps are necessary for contagion to take place?

<ol> <li>Observer is motivated to behave in a certain way; 2. Observer knows how to perform the behavior and is not currently performing it; 3. Observer sees a model perform the behavior; 4. Observer performs the behavior.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

The type of power that comes from having specialized knowledge is called ______ power.

Expert Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of power with their descriptions:

Coercive Power = Threats and punishment to force behavior change Reward Power = Positive reinforcement for desired behavior Legitimate Power = Power derived from a specific role or position Referent Power = Influence based on admiration and respect Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the enduring behaviors, ideas, and traditions shared by a large group of people?

Culture Signup and view all the answers

Gender refers solely to biological distinctions between male and female.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is the social marker of biological sex referred to as?

Gender Signup and view all the answers

In many cultures, it is expected for men to avoid ___________ as part of societal norms.

makeup Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following behaviors would likely be considered a norm violation in an elevator?

Facing the back of the elevator Signup and view all the answers

Match the terms with their correct definitions:

Culture = Enduring behaviors and traditions shared by a group Norms = Shared expectations about how to behave Sex = Biological category based on genes and anatomy Gender = Social identity related to male and female characteristics Signup and view all the answers

In Arab cultures, people are expected to stand very close when communicating.

True Signup and view all the answers

What did Crandall's study focus on in relation to women and sororities?

Norms surrounding binge eating and body shape Signup and view all the answers

Which factor increases conformity among group members?

The size of the group Signup and view all the answers

Compliance involves genuinely accepting the belief of the group.

False Signup and view all the answers

What term refers to the change in behavior due to real or imagined group pressure?

Conformity Signup and view all the answers

In Sherif's autokinetic effect study, participants were asked to judge whether a point of light had __________ over time.

moved Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts to their definitions:

Conformity = Change in behavior due to group pressure Compliance = Acting in accordance without belief Acceptance = Genuine belief in group influence Group pressure = Influence exerted by a collective Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the presence of dissenters have on conformity?

Decreases conformity Signup and view all the answers

Ambiguous tasks typically lead to less conformity compared to unambiguous tasks.

False Signup and view all the answers

What term describes norms as a set of shared expectations about behavior?

Social norms Signup and view all the answers

Western cultures tend to conform __________ than Eastern cultures.

less Signup and view all the answers

Which group size does conformity increase with, according to research findings?

Up to five people Signup and view all the answers

According to Buss's research, what trait are men more likely to seek in a mate?

Physical attractiveness Signup and view all the answers

Women are more likely to value economic resources in a mate than physical attractiveness.

True Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'file drawer problem' refer to in gender research?

The tendency for studies reporting gender similarities to remain unpublished. Signup and view all the answers

Gender differences can be influenced by __________, which refers to biological factors.

nature Signup and view all the answers

Match the following gender differences with their corresponding traits:

Morality = Independence vs. connectedness Aggression = Physical confrontations Math Ability = Problem-solving skills Verbal Ability = Communication skills Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception regarding women's preference for wealth in a mate?

Women seek wealth to ensure their children are protected Signup and view all the answers

Men and women from different cultures show more similarities in mate preferences than those from the same culture.

False Signup and view all the answers

What factor makes it difficult to pinpoint the cause of gender differences?

The influence of both biology and the environment. Signup and view all the answers

The dimension over which females and males differ according to Myers is __________ vs. connectedness.

independence Signup and view all the answers

Which dimension is identified as influencing moral dilemmas between genders?

Independence vs. connectedness Signup and view all the answers

According to Carol Gilligan, on what basis do women primarily make moral decisions?

Compassion and care Signup and view all the answers

Men are generally reported to display more aggressive behavior than women.

True Signup and view all the answers

What did Faye Crosby conclude about the reasoning used by males and females when faced with a moral dilemma?

Males and females use both case-based and justice-based reasoning. Signup and view all the answers

Men are arrested for violent crimes _____ more often than women in the US.

eight times Signup and view all the answers

Match the explanations for aggression with their descriptions:

Biological = Prenatal exposure to androgens may predispose aggression Environmental = Parents play more roughly with male children Social = Cultural norms may support aggressive behavior in men Psychological = Guilt about aggression may differ based on gender Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is supported regarding gender differences in aggression?

Women feel guilt about aggression more frequently than men. Signup and view all the answers

Gender differences in physical aggression disappear when both genders are equally provoked.

False Signup and view all the answers

In what context do gender differences in aggression tend to disappear?

When the aggression is perceived as justified and the victim is anonymous. Signup and view all the answers

The lack of empirical support for Gilligan's theory was highlighted by the findings of _____.

Faye Crosby Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a noted explanation for gender differences in aggression?

Cognitive factors Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Norms

There is a social norm in sororities for binge eating, with women who engage in the average amount of binge eating being the most popular.
Similar norms regarding drinking behavior are suspected in fraternities.
The generic use of "he" has been a norm for a long time, but research shows it can be misleading.
Use of the generic "he" has negative impacts on women's comprehension and recall of written material.
The American Psychological Association has forbidden sexist language in publications.

Biology vs. Environment in Gender Differences

Men have historically been viewed as the norm in medicine and psychology.
Studies show that men are more likely to seek physical attractiveness in a mate, while women seek wealth and social status.
More differences exist between cultures than between genders.
It is premature to attribute gender differences solely to genetics.
The "file drawer problem" exists, where studies reporting gender similarity are less likely to be published.
Numerous studies have revealed more similarities than differences between genders.

Morality

Men and women differ in their approach to morality, with men demonstrating more independence and women showing more connectedness.

Spatial Ability

Some studies suggest that men may demonstrate superior spatial ability due to higher testosterone levels during prenatal development.
More compelling explanations for differences in spatial ability are environmental.

Math Ability

Gender differences in math ability do not emerge until adolescence, and they have been declining in recent years, implying that biology alone cannot explain the differences.
Environmental factors, such as the number of math classes taken, play a significant role.
Stereotype threat can negatively affect women's performance on math tests.

Verbal Ability

Girls are generally encouraged to be more verbally expressive.
Mothers rate their daughters higher in reading than sons, even when there is no observed gender difference in performance.

Conformity

In ambiguous situations, individuals tend to rely on social reality as a source of information.
Social reality can be just as impactful on behavior as physical reality.
The autokinetic effect study (Sherif) demonstrates private acceptance, where individuals truly believe the group's judgments.
The line study (Asch) demonstrates public compliance, where individuals conform to the group's opinion but do not personally believe it.
Normative social pressure leads to conformity because individuals fear rejection or punishment for deviating from group norms.

Culture and Norms

Culture: The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people, passed down across generations.
Norms: Shared expectations or rules for behavior in social settings.
Personal space: Cultural norms influence expectations of personal space, varying dramatically across cultures.
Gender norms: Norms also vary significantly between genders, often influenced by cultural expectations, such as acceptable behaviors (e.g., makeup for men vs. spitting for women).

Sex vs. Gender

Sex: A biological category determined by genetics, anatomy, and reproductive function. All mammals are categorized as either male or female.
Gender: Social characteristics defining female and male, shaped by cultural interpretations of biological sex. All cultures recognize biological differences and use them for social differentiation.

Crandall's study on binge eating

Crandall investigated binge eating norms among sororities.
Sororities are influential groups in some college women's lives.
Body shape and appearance play a significant role in sorority culture, impacting eating and dieting behaviors.
Sororities develop norms for eating, and deviations from these norms can lead to social rejection.

Evolutionary Perspective on Mating Preferences

Parental investment theory posits that the sex investing more heavily in offspring (generally women) will be more selective in mate choices.
Father's involvement is crucial for offspring survival, particularly in early development.
Societal constraints discourage women from initiating sex.
Buss's cross-cultural research found men prefer physically attractive mates while women desire wealth and social status.
Cultural differences played a larger role than gender differences in mate preferences across different cultures.
The link between physical attractiveness and fertility is not always certain.

The File Drawer Problem: Bias in Research

File Drawer Problem: Studies finding gender similarities often go unpublished and end up in researcher's files, leading to a publication bias towards gender differences.

Gender Differences: Nature vs. Nurture

Nature vs. Nurture: Debating the influence of biology (nature, genes) versus environment (nurture, culture) in causing gender differences.
Morality: Gilligan's theory suggests women base moral decisions on compassion and care, while men use abstract principles of justice. However, research does not support this theory.

Aggression: Gender Differences

Aggression: Males tend to be more physically aggressive than females in many cultures, both in childhood and adulthood.
Social and legal implications: Men are arrested for violent crimes more often than women.
Gender differences in aggression: Women express greater guilt about aggression, which may act as an inhibition.
Contextual factors: Gender differences in aggression disappear when the act is perceived as justified and when the victim is unknown.
Verbal Aggression: Gender differences in verbal aggression are less pronounced.
Explanations of Gender Differences in Aggression:*
Biology: Prenatal exposure to androgens (male sex hormones) potentially influences aggression.
Environment: Parental interaction styles (rough play) and societal expectations for boys and girls can shape aggression.

Conformity and Compliance

Conformity: Changing behavior or beliefs due to real or imagined group pressure.
Compliance: Acting in accord with group pressure without genuine belief.
Acceptance: Genuinely accepting the group's influence.

Sherif: Autokinetic Effect

Sherif's study used the autokinetic effect (illusory movement of a light in a dark room) to investigate conformity.
Participants' judgments of light movement converged when they were in a group, illustrating conformity.

Asch: Line Length Experiment

Asch's research involved an unambiguous task (judging line length) with confederates providing incorrect answers.
Participants conformed to the group's incorrect answers, demonstrating conformity even on unambiguous tasks.

Factors that influence conformity

Group Size: Conformity rises with up to five members but levels off further.
Ambiguity: Higher ambiguity increases conformity, but conformity can still occur in unambiguous situations.
Group Status: Groups with higher status exert stronger conformity pressures.
Presence of Dissenters: Conformity declines when one or more members dissent from the group.
Individual and Cultural Differences: Some evidence suggests women may conform more, but current research doesn't support it.
Western Cultures tend to conform less compared to Eastern cultures.

The Deviant's Fate

Group Responses to Dissent: Groups may reject, ignore, or assign undesirable tasks to deviants who disagree.

Power Sources for Conformity

Coercive Power: The ability to threaten or punish for non-compliance (e.g., parents, government).
Reward Power: Providing positive reinforcement for change (e.g., parents, social groups).
Legitimate Power: Power derived from position or role (e.g., juries, professors).
Expert Power: Power based on perceived knowledge or expertise (e.g., medical doctors).
Referent Power: Power stemming from admiration or liking (e.g., significant others).

Conformity vs. Contagion

Contagion: Observing someone else's behavior influences you to behave similarly, even if you are already motivated to do so.
The LA Riots: Looting served as a catalyst for more looting, demonstrating contagion.
Steps Required for Contagion:
- Motivation to perform the behavior
- Knowledge of how to perform the behavior
- Observing a model performing the behavior
- Performing the behavior.
Stop sign violation: Observing someone run a stop sign increases the likelihood of the observer doing the same.

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Description

Explore the complex interplay between social norms and biological factors in shaping gender differences. This quiz covers topics such as binge eating in sororities, attitudes towards attractiveness inmates, and the impact of language on comprehension. Delve into the nuances of how cultural contexts influence gender perceptions.