Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the most common cause of SIADH?
What is the most common cause of SIADH?
- Altered hormone inactivation or degradation
- Failure of target cell to respond to its hormone
- Excessive production of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
- Ectopic secretion of ADH (correct)
What is the main effect of high levels of ADH in SIADH?
What is the main effect of high levels of ADH in SIADH?
- Increased water reabsorption by the kidneys (correct)
- Decreased water reabsorption by the kidneys
- Increased sodium reabsorption by the kidneys
- Decreased sodium reabsorption by the kidneys
What type of hyponatremia is present in SIADH?
What type of hyponatremia is present in SIADH?
- Hypervolemic hyponatremia
- Euvolemic hypotonic (dilutional) hyponatremia (correct)
- Normovolemic hyponatremia
- Hypovolemic hyponatremia
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of SIADH?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of SIADH?
What is the basic pathophysiology of hypopituitarism?
What is the basic pathophysiology of hypopituitarism?
What are the typical deficiencies seen in panhypopituitarism?
What are the typical deficiencies seen in panhypopituitarism?
What is the primary function of the esophageal sphincters?
What is the primary function of the esophageal sphincters?
Which of the following hormones is MOST responsible for enhancing the relaxation of the stomach?
Which of the following hormones is MOST responsible for enhancing the relaxation of the stomach?
What is the main function of salivary amylase?
What is the main function of salivary amylase?
Which of the following factors MOST delays gastric emptying?
Which of the following factors MOST delays gastric emptying?
What is the main function of the vagus nerve in relation to the stomach?
What is the main function of the vagus nerve in relation to the stomach?
Which of the following is a true statement about the composition of gastric juice?
Which of the following is a true statement about the composition of gastric juice?
What is the primary function of the lower esophageal sphincter?
What is the primary function of the lower esophageal sphincter?
Which of the following hormones is MOST responsible for enhancing gastric peristalsis?
Which of the following hormones is MOST responsible for enhancing gastric peristalsis?
What is the main function of the stomach's muscle layers?
What is the main function of the stomach's muscle layers?
What is the primary function of the taste buds and olfactory nerves in the mouth?
What is the primary function of the taste buds and olfactory nerves in the mouth?
What is the primary function of the small intestine?
What is the primary function of the small intestine?
Which part of the small intestine absorbs carbohydrates and proteins?
Which part of the small intestine absorbs carbohydrates and proteins?
What is the primary function of the colon?
What is the primary function of the colon?
Which enzyme is responsible for breaking down starches in carbohydrate digestion?
Which enzyme is responsible for breaking down starches in carbohydrate digestion?
How are amino acids absorbed from the small intestine?
How are amino acids absorbed from the small intestine?
What is the role of the defecation reflex?
What is the role of the defecation reflex?
Which of the following is NOT a risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is NOT a risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is a characteristic of gestational diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is a characteristic of gestational diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is NOT a component of the metabolic syndrome?
Which of the following is NOT a component of the metabolic syndrome?
In type 2 diabetes mellitus, which of the following is observed in pancreatic alpha cells?
In type 2 diabetes mellitus, which of the following is observed in pancreatic alpha cells?
Which of the following is a characteristic of type 1 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is a characteristic of type 1 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is a complication of diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is a complication of diabetes mellitus?
What is the primary cause of hypoparathyroidism?
What is the primary cause of hypoparathyroidism?
Which hormone deficiency leads to a lack of secondary sex characteristics in both males and females?
Which hormone deficiency leads to a lack of secondary sex characteristics in both males and females?
What is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism that develops autoantibodies towards the thyroid?
What is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism that develops autoantibodies towards the thyroid?
In hypothyroidism, what is the primary cause of central (secondary) hypothyroidism?
In hypothyroidism, what is the primary cause of central (secondary) hypothyroidism?
What is the primary manifestation of hyperparathyroidism?
What is the primary manifestation of hyperparathyroidism?
Which condition is characterized by decreased LOC, hypothermia, hypoventilation, hypotension, and coma?
Which condition is characterized by decreased LOC, hypothermia, hypoventilation, hypotension, and coma?
Acromegaly is primarily caused by the hypersecretion of which hormone in adulthood?
Acromegaly is primarily caused by the hypersecretion of which hormone in adulthood?
Thyrotoxic crisis (thyroid storm) can result from excessive stress on patients with:
Thyrotoxic crisis (thyroid storm) can result from excessive stress on patients with:
Which component of the digestive system is responsible for the initial voluntary phase of swallowing?
Which component of the digestive system is responsible for the initial voluntary phase of swallowing?
What is the primary function of the salivary glands?
What is the primary function of the salivary glands?
Which of the following factors MOST enhances gastric peristalsis?
Which of the following factors MOST enhances gastric peristalsis?
What is the primary function of the lower esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter)?
What is the primary function of the lower esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter)?
Which of the following is a key component of the composition of gastric juice?
Which of the following is a key component of the composition of gastric juice?
What is the primary function of the vagus nerve in relation to the stomach?
What is the primary function of the vagus nerve in relation to the stomach?
Which hormone is MOST responsible for enhancing the relaxation of the stomach?
Which hormone is MOST responsible for enhancing the relaxation of the stomach?
What is the primary function of the taste buds and olfactory nerves in the mouth?
What is the primary function of the taste buds and olfactory nerves in the mouth?
Which factor MOST delays gastric emptying?
Which factor MOST delays gastric emptying?
What is the primary function of the stomach's muscle layers?
What is the primary function of the stomach's muscle layers?
Which enzyme is primarily responsible for breaking down starches in the small intestine?
Which enzyme is primarily responsible for breaking down starches in the small intestine?
Which nutrient is primarily absorbed in the ileum of the small intestine?
Which nutrient is primarily absorbed in the ileum of the small intestine?
What is the primary function of the cecum and appendix in the large intestine?
What is the primary function of the cecum and appendix in the large intestine?
How are fatty acids and monoglycerides made water-soluble for absorption in the small intestine?
How are fatty acids and monoglycerides made water-soluble for absorption in the small intestine?
Which part of the small intestine is primarily responsible for the absorption of carbohydrates and proteins?
Which part of the small intestine is primarily responsible for the absorption of carbohydrates and proteins?
What is the primary function of the defecation reflex in the colon?
What is the primary function of the defecation reflex in the colon?
Which of the following substances is secreted by parietal cells of the stomach?
Which of the following substances is secreted by parietal cells of the stomach?
Which of the following is responsible for breaking down proteins in the stomach?
Which of the following is responsible for breaking down proteins in the stomach?
What is the primary function of mucus secreted in the stomach?
What is the primary function of mucus secreted in the stomach?
Which of the following substances stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?
Which of the following substances stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?
Which of the following is primarily responsible for the strongest stimulation of pepsin secretion?
Which of the following is primarily responsible for the strongest stimulation of pepsin secretion?
What is the primary factor that inactivates pepsin in the duodenum?
What is the primary factor that inactivates pepsin in the duodenum?
What is the main function of the hepatocytes in the liver?
What is the main function of the hepatocytes in the liver?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the liver?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the liver?
What is the main role of bile salts in the digestive process?
What is the main role of bile salts in the digestive process?
What is the main function of the gallbladder?
What is the main function of the gallbladder?
What is the main function of pancreatic enzymes in the digestive process?
What is the main function of pancreatic enzymes in the digestive process?
How does the liver help regulate blood glucose levels?
How does the liver help regulate blood glucose levels?
What is the main consequence of impaired bile production on vitamin K absorption?
What is the main consequence of impaired bile production on vitamin K absorption?
What is the main function of the ileogastric reflex?
What is the main function of the ileogastric reflex?
What is the main function of the Kupffer cells in the liver?
What is the main function of the Kupffer cells in the liver?
What is the main function of the stellate cells in the liver?
What is the main function of the stellate cells in the liver?
What is the primary risk factor for the development of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?
What is the primary risk factor for the development of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?
Which type of pain is usually poorly localized, diffuse, and vague, in the context of abdominal pathologies?
Which type of pain is usually poorly localized, diffuse, and vague, in the context of abdominal pathologies?
What is the typical presentation of an upper esophageal obstruction?
What is the typical presentation of an upper esophageal obstruction?
In the context of gastrointestinal pathologies, what does frothy and fatty stool indicate?
In the context of gastrointestinal pathologies, what does frothy and fatty stool indicate?
Which region of the abdomen is most commonly associated with discomfort from gallbladder or liver disease?
Which region of the abdomen is most commonly associated with discomfort from gallbladder or liver disease?
What is the primary cause of narrow or ribbon-like stools in the lower GI tract?
What is the primary cause of narrow or ribbon-like stools in the lower GI tract?
What symptom is typically associated with malabsorption syndromes?
What symptom is typically associated with malabsorption syndromes?
Which glandular disorder is commonly associated with difficulty beginning swallowing both solids and liquids?
Which glandular disorder is commonly associated with difficulty beginning swallowing both solids and liquids?
In the context of gastrointestinal bleeding, what does black, tarry stool typically indicate?
In the context of gastrointestinal bleeding, what does black, tarry stool typically indicate?
What is the primary manifestation of an acute bacterial or viral infection affecting the GI tract?
What is the primary manifestation of an acute bacterial or viral infection affecting the GI tract?
What is the primary function of gastrin?
What is the primary function of gastrin?
Which cells are responsible for secreting pepsinogen in the stomach?
Which cells are responsible for secreting pepsinogen in the stomach?
What is the primary function of the ileocecal valve?
What is the primary function of the ileocecal valve?
Which phase of gastric secretion is stimulated by the presence of digested protein in the stomach?
Which phase of gastric secretion is stimulated by the presence of digested protein in the stomach?
Which cells are responsible for secreting somatostatin in the stomach?
Which cells are responsible for secreting somatostatin in the stomach?
What is the primary function of the myenteric plexus in the small intestine?
What is the primary function of the myenteric plexus in the small intestine?
Which cells are responsible for secreting histamine in the stomach?
Which cells are responsible for secreting histamine in the stomach?
What is the primary function of the villi in the small intestine?
What is the primary function of the villi in the small intestine?
Which hormone is responsible for stimulating the secretion of digestive enzymes from the pancreas?
Which hormone is responsible for stimulating the secretion of digestive enzymes from the pancreas?
What is the primary function of the external anal sphincter?
What is the primary function of the external anal sphincter?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of duodenal ulcers?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of duodenal ulcers?
Which of the following is the primary cause of gastric ulcers?
Which of the following is the primary cause of gastric ulcers?
Which type of ulcer is related to severe illness, neural injury, or systemic trauma?
Which type of ulcer is related to severe illness, neural injury, or systemic trauma?
Which of the following is NOT a clinical manifestation of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?
Which of the following is NOT a clinical manifestation of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?
Which type of gastritis is associated with autoantibodies to parietal cells and intrinsic factor?
Which type of gastritis is associated with autoantibodies to parietal cells and intrinsic factor?
Which of the following is a characteristic of physiologic reflux?
Which of the following is a characteristic of physiologic reflux?
Which of the following conditions is characterized by symptoms of reflux disease but no visible mucosal injury?
Which of the following conditions is characterized by symptoms of reflux disease but no visible mucosal injury?
Which of the following is a risk factor for the development of peptic ulcer disease (PUD)?
Which of the following is a risk factor for the development of peptic ulcer disease (PUD)?
Which type of gastritis is associated with H. pylori infection and NSAID use?
Which type of gastritis is associated with H. pylori infection and NSAID use?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of peptic ulcer disease (PUD)?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of peptic ulcer disease (PUD)?
What stimulates the secretion of pepsinogen in the stomach?
What stimulates the secretion of pepsinogen in the stomach?
Which hormone acts to inhibit the secretion of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?
Which hormone acts to inhibit the secretion of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?
What is the primary purpose of intrinsic factor secreted in the stomach?
What is the primary purpose of intrinsic factor secreted in the stomach?
Which substance acts as a protective barrier against acidic damage in the stomach?
Which substance acts as a protective barrier against acidic damage in the stomach?
What is the main function of gastroferrin secreted in the stomach?
What is the main function of gastroferrin secreted in the stomach?
Which substance is responsible for breaking down food fibers in the stomach?
Which substance is responsible for breaking down food fibers in the stomach?
Which of the following is the MAIN function of the duodenum in the small intestine?
Which of the following is the MAIN function of the duodenum in the small intestine?
Which enzyme is primarily responsible for the hydrolysis of large protein molecules in the small intestine?
Which enzyme is primarily responsible for the hydrolysis of large protein molecules in the small intestine?
What is the MAIN purpose of the micelle formation process in fat digestion and absorption?
What is the MAIN purpose of the micelle formation process in fat digestion and absorption?
Which of the following processes is PRIMARILY responsible for the absorption of amino acids in the small intestine?
Which of the following processes is PRIMARILY responsible for the absorption of amino acids in the small intestine?
What is the MAIN function of the appendix in the large intestine?
What is the MAIN function of the appendix in the large intestine?
What is the MAIN function of the defecation reflex in the colon?
What is the MAIN function of the defecation reflex in the colon?
Which nerve allows relaxation of the esophagus during swallowing?
Which nerve allows relaxation of the esophagus during swallowing?
What is the primary function of the lower esophageal sphincter?
What is the primary function of the lower esophageal sphincter?
What is the composition of saliva that contains substances aiding in carbohydrate digestion?
What is the composition of saliva that contains substances aiding in carbohydrate digestion?
What is the primary function of the pancreatic enzymes secreted into the duodenum?
What is the primary function of the pancreatic enzymes secreted into the duodenum?
Which cell type in the liver is responsible for the storage and regulation of vitamin A?
Which cell type in the liver is responsible for the storage and regulation of vitamin A?
What is the primary function of the ileogastric reflex in the gastrointestinal tract?
What is the primary function of the ileogastric reflex in the gastrointestinal tract?
What is the primary function of the Kupffer cells in the liver?
What is the primary function of the Kupffer cells in the liver?
Which of the following is the primary function of bile produced by the liver?
Which of the following is the primary function of bile produced by the liver?
What is the main function of the gallbladder in the digestive system?
What is the main function of the gallbladder in the digestive system?
What is the primary function of the stellate cells (Ito cells) in the liver?
What is the primary function of the stellate cells (Ito cells) in the liver?
What is the primary mechanism by which the liver helps regulate blood glucose levels?
What is the primary mechanism by which the liver helps regulate blood glucose levels?
What is the primary function of the defecation reflex in the colon?
What is the primary function of the defecation reflex in the colon?
What is the main function of the ileogastric reflex in the gastrointestinal tract?
What is the main function of the ileogastric reflex in the gastrointestinal tract?
What is the primary function of gastroferrin secreted by the parietal cells in the gastric glands?
What is the primary function of gastroferrin secreted by the parietal cells in the gastric glands?
Which phase of gastric secretion is stimulated by the presence of digested protein in the stomach?
Which phase of gastric secretion is stimulated by the presence of digested protein in the stomach?
What is the primary function of the peritoneal cavity?
What is the primary function of the peritoneal cavity?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the villi in the small intestine?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the villi in the small intestine?
What is the primary function of the ileocecal valve?
What is the primary function of the ileocecal valve?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the stomach's muscle layers?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the stomach's muscle layers?
What is the primary function of the mucosal plexus in the small intestine?
What is the primary function of the mucosal plexus in the small intestine?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the salivary amylase in the mouth?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the salivary amylase in the mouth?
What is the primary function of the enterochromaffin-like cells in the gastric glands?
What is the primary function of the enterochromaffin-like cells in the gastric glands?
Which of the following is the primary function of the ileogastric reflex?
Which of the following is the primary function of the ileogastric reflex?
Which of the following is a characteristic of visceral pain in the gastrointestinal tract?
Which of the following is a characteristic of visceral pain in the gastrointestinal tract?
Which of the following stool characteristics may indicate a lower gastrointestinal bleed?
Which of the following stool characteristics may indicate a lower gastrointestinal bleed?
Which biochemical mediator, released during the inflammatory response, can stimulate pain nerve endings in the gastrointestinal tract?
Which biochemical mediator, released during the inflammatory response, can stimulate pain nerve endings in the gastrointestinal tract?
Which region of the abdomen is typically associated with pain originating from the appendix?
Which region of the abdomen is typically associated with pain originating from the appendix?
Which of the following is a characteristic of an extrinsic mechanical obstruction of the esophagus?
Which of the following is a characteristic of an extrinsic mechanical obstruction of the esophagus?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?
Which of the following conditions can contribute to gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) by increasing abdominal pressure?
Which of the following conditions can contribute to gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) by increasing abdominal pressure?
Which of the following factors is a risk factor for the development of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?
Which of the following factors is a risk factor for the development of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?
Which of the following stool characteristics may indicate a problem with fat digestion or absorption?
Which of the following stool characteristics may indicate a problem with fat digestion or absorption?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of dysphagia (difficulty swallowing) caused by a lower esophageal obstruction?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of dysphagia (difficulty swallowing) caused by a lower esophageal obstruction?
Which of the following is the most common cause of duodenal ulcers?
Which of the following is the most common cause of duodenal ulcers?
What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes nonerosive reflux disease (NERD) from other forms of reflux?
What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes nonerosive reflux disease (NERD) from other forms of reflux?
Which type of gastritis is associated with autoimmune mechanisms, involving autoantibodies against parietal cells and intrinsic factor?
Which type of gastritis is associated with autoimmune mechanisms, involving autoantibodies against parietal cells and intrinsic factor?
Which of the following factors is primarily responsible for the development of stress ulcers?
Which of the following factors is primarily responsible for the development of stress ulcers?
Which of the following statements about the clinical manifestations of gastric ulcers is true?
Which of the following statements about the clinical manifestations of gastric ulcers is true?
Which of the following is the primary defect in the pathogenesis of gastric ulcers caused by H. pylori infection?
Which of the following is the primary defect in the pathogenesis of gastric ulcers caused by H. pylori infection?
Which type of ulcer is characterized by the formation of 'curling ulcers' within hours of trauma, hemorrhage, sepsis, or burns?
Which type of ulcer is characterized by the formation of 'curling ulcers' within hours of trauma, hemorrhage, sepsis, or burns?
Which of the following statements about the clinical manifestations of duodenal ulcers is true?
Which of the following statements about the clinical manifestations of duodenal ulcers is true?
Which of the following statements about the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is true?
Which of the following statements about the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is true?
Which of the following conditions is characterized by the presence of a gastrinoma, leading to increased gastrin secretion and subsequent hypersecretion of gastric acid?
Which of the following conditions is characterized by the presence of a gastrinoma, leading to increased gastrin secretion and subsequent hypersecretion of gastric acid?
What is the primary cause of diverticulitis?
What is the primary cause of diverticulitis?
Which of the following is a characteristic clinical manifestation of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)?
Which of the following is a characteristic clinical manifestation of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)?
What are orexins?
What are orexins?
Which of the following is the primary cause of obesity?
Which of the following is the primary cause of obesity?
Which of the following best describes the clinical manifestations of diverticulitis?
Which of the following best describes the clinical manifestations of diverticulitis?
What is the primary cause of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)?
What is the primary cause of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)?
What is the primary cause of the clinical manifestations associated with pyloric obstruction?
What is the primary cause of the clinical manifestations associated with pyloric obstruction?
Which of the following is the primary mechanism underlying early dumping syndrome after gastric surgery?
Which of the following is the primary mechanism underlying early dumping syndrome after gastric surgery?
Which of the following is the most common cause of lower gastrointestinal bleeding?
Which of the following is the most common cause of lower gastrointestinal bleeding?
What is the primary physiologic response to significant gastrointestinal bleeding?
What is the primary physiologic response to significant gastrointestinal bleeding?
Which of the following is a key difference between maldigestion and malabsorption?
Which of the following is a key difference between maldigestion and malabsorption?
Which of the following is a characteristic of melena, a sign of upper gastrointestinal bleeding?
Which of the following is a characteristic of melena, a sign of upper gastrointestinal bleeding?
Which hormone is responsible for promoting the secretion of melanin and lipotropin, resulting in darker skin?
Which hormone is responsible for promoting the secretion of melanin and lipotropin, resulting in darker skin?
Which hormone is responsible for regulating the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, as well as promoting iodine uptake and thyroid cell growth?
Which hormone is responsible for regulating the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, as well as promoting iodine uptake and thyroid cell growth?
Which hormone plays a crucial role in ovulation, progesterone production in women, and testicular growth and testosterone production in men?
Which hormone plays a crucial role in ovulation, progesterone production in women, and testicular growth and testosterone production in men?
Which hormone is essential for normal tissue growth, maturation, and aging processes, and also affects sleep, nutritional status, stress, and reproductive hormones?
Which hormone is essential for normal tissue growth, maturation, and aging processes, and also affects sleep, nutritional status, stress, and reproductive hormones?
Which hormone is responsible for promoting the production of cortisol, androgenic hormones, and aldosterone by stimulating the adrenal cortex/gland?
Which hormone is responsible for promoting the production of cortisol, androgenic hormones, and aldosterone by stimulating the adrenal cortex/gland?
Which hormone is responsible for follicle maturation, estrogen production in women, and spermatogenesis in men?
Which hormone is responsible for follicle maturation, estrogen production in women, and spermatogenesis in men?
Which gland plays an important role in circadian rhythms and immune regulation?
Which gland plays an important role in circadian rhythms and immune regulation?
Which hormone regulates the metabolic rate of all cells and processes cell growth?
Which hormone regulates the metabolic rate of all cells and processes cell growth?
Which cells in the pancreas release a hormone that stimulates T cell development in the immune system?
Which cells in the pancreas release a hormone that stimulates T cell development in the immune system?
What is the primary function of parathyroid hormone in the body?
What is the primary function of parathyroid hormone in the body?
Which nervous system stimulates alpha cells of the pancreas to release glucagon?
Which nervous system stimulates alpha cells of the pancreas to release glucagon?
What is the function of somatostatin in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism?
What is the function of somatostatin in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism?
What is the primary role of pancreatic polypeptide released by F cells/PP cells?
What is the primary role of pancreatic polypeptide released by F cells/PP cells?
Which gland releases hormones that control rates of metabolic processes within the body?
Which gland releases hormones that control rates of metabolic processes within the body?
What stimulates beta cells of the pancreas to release insulin and amylin?
What stimulates beta cells of the pancreas to release insulin and amylin?
Which hormone acts as an antagonist to calcitonin and regulates serum calcium levels?
Which hormone acts as an antagonist to calcitonin and regulates serum calcium levels?
What is the most common surgical emergency of the abdomen?
What is the most common surgical emergency of the abdomen?
Which type of gallstone is primarily composed of calcium bilirubinate polymer?
Which type of gallstone is primarily composed of calcium bilirubinate polymer?
What is the primary cause of intolerance to fatty foods in cholelithiasis?
What is the primary cause of intolerance to fatty foods in cholelithiasis?
Which enzyme is elevated in acute pancreatitis and remains high?
Which enzyme is elevated in acute pancreatitis and remains high?
What is the characteristic that indicates chronic changes in pancreatitis?
What is the characteristic that indicates chronic changes in pancreatitis?
Which sign is associated with cholecystitis and indicates abdominal muscle guarding?
Which sign is associated with cholecystitis and indicates abdominal muscle guarding?
What is the primary cause of cirrhosis?
What is the primary cause of cirrhosis?
What symptom indicates that a stone has lodged in the cystic or common duct in cholelithiasis?
What symptom indicates that a stone has lodged in the cystic or common duct in cholelithiasis?
Which disease is characterized by abnormally high blood pressure in the portal venous system?
Which disease is characterized by abnormally high blood pressure in the portal venous system?
What is the main symptom of hepatic encephalopathy?
What is the main symptom of hepatic encephalopathy?
Which type of hepatitis is commonly transmitted through contaminated food or water?
Which type of hepatitis is commonly transmitted through contaminated food or water?
What is a common risk factor for pancreatic cancer?
What is a common risk factor for pancreatic cancer?
Which condition results from severe impairment or necrosis of liver cells?
Which condition results from severe impairment or necrosis of liver cells?
What is a consequence of portal hypertension?
What is a consequence of portal hypertension?
What is the primary difference between maldigestion and malabsorption?
What is the primary difference between maldigestion and malabsorption?
Which condition is characterized by an inability to breakdown lactose due to a congenital defect in the lactase gene?
Which condition is characterized by an inability to breakdown lactose due to a congenital defect in the lactase gene?
What is the consequence of bile salt deficiency in relation to nutrient absorption?
What is the consequence of bile salt deficiency in relation to nutrient absorption?
Which vitamin deficiency can lead to symptoms such as night blindness?
Which vitamin deficiency can lead to symptoms such as night blindness?
In which condition does the failure of the chemical processes of digestion occur?
In which condition does the failure of the chemical processes of digestion occur?
What is a common cause of malabsorption that results in weight loss?
What is a common cause of malabsorption that results in weight loss?
What is the primary characteristic of diverticular disease?
What is the primary characteristic of diverticular disease?
"Cobblestone" appearance due to skip lesions and transverse inflammatory fissures are characteristic of which gastrointestinal disorder?
"Cobblestone" appearance due to skip lesions and transverse inflammatory fissures are characteristic of which gastrointestinal disorder?
Which type of anorexin is typically associated with a pear-shaped body type?
Which type of anorexin is typically associated with a pear-shaped body type?
What is the most common cause of obstruction leading to appendicitis?
What is the most common cause of obstruction leading to appendicitis?
Which type of gallstone is primarily composed of calcium bilirubinate polymer from hyperbilirubinemia?
Which type of gallstone is primarily composed of calcium bilirubinate polymer from hyperbilirubinemia?
What is the most specific lab test for diagnosing acute pancreatitis?
What is the most specific lab test for diagnosing acute pancreatitis?
Which of the following is the MAIN function of the defecation reflex in the colon?
Which of the following is the MAIN function of the defecation reflex in the colon?
Which type of gallstone is typically associated with bacterial infection of the bile ducts?
Which type of gallstone is typically associated with bacterial infection of the bile ducts?
What is the MAIN function of bile salts in the digestive process?
What is the MAIN function of bile salts in the digestive process?
Which hormone is MOST responsible for enhancing gastric peristalsis?
Which hormone is MOST responsible for enhancing gastric peristalsis?
What is the MAIN function of the ileocecal valve?
What is the MAIN function of the ileocecal valve?
Which cells in the pancreas release a hormone that stimulates T cell development in the immune system?
Which cells in the pancreas release a hormone that stimulates T cell development in the immune system?
What is the primary pathophysiologic mechanism underlying diverticulitis?
What is the primary pathophysiologic mechanism underlying diverticulitis?
Which of the following is NOT a typical clinical manifestation of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)?
Which of the following is NOT a typical clinical manifestation of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)?
What is the primary molecule responsible for stimulating eating behavior?
What is the primary molecule responsible for stimulating eating behavior?
Which of the following is NOT a common complication of diverticulitis?
Which of the following is NOT a common complication of diverticulitis?
What is the primary cause of the clinical manifestations associated with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)?
What is the primary cause of the clinical manifestations associated with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)?
Which of the following is the most accurate definition of obesity?
Which of the following is the most accurate definition of obesity?
In pyloric obstruction, what is the cardinal sign that occurs several hours after eating?
In pyloric obstruction, what is the cardinal sign that occurs several hours after eating?
Which of the following is the primary cause of early dumping syndrome after gastric surgery?
Which of the following is the primary cause of early dumping syndrome after gastric surgery?
Which of the following is the most likely cause of melena (dark, tarry stools)?
Which of the following is the most likely cause of melena (dark, tarry stools)?
What is the primary physiologic response to significant gastrointestinal bleeding?
What is the primary physiologic response to significant gastrointestinal bleeding?
Which of the following is the primary mechanism by which bile salts aid in nutrient absorption?
Which of the following is the primary mechanism by which bile salts aid in nutrient absorption?
Which of the following is the primary function of the myenteric plexus in the small intestine?
Which of the following is the primary function of the myenteric plexus in the small intestine?
Which of the following is the primary function of somatostatin secreted by the pancreatic delta cells?
Which of the following is the primary function of somatostatin secreted by the pancreatic delta cells?
What is the MAIN role of the parasympathetic nervous system in regulating pancreatic function?
What is the MAIN role of the parasympathetic nervous system in regulating pancreatic function?
Which of the following hormones secreted by the pancreatic islet cells is PRIMARILY responsible for lowering blood glucose levels?
Which of the following hormones secreted by the pancreatic islet cells is PRIMARILY responsible for lowering blood glucose levels?
What is the MAIN function of the thymus gland in the body's immune system?
What is the MAIN function of the thymus gland in the body's immune system?
What is the MAIN function of the pineal gland in regulating the body's circadian rhythms?
What is the MAIN function of the pineal gland in regulating the body's circadian rhythms?
Which of the following is the MAIN mechanism by which the thyroid gland is regulated?
Which of the following is the MAIN mechanism by which the thyroid gland is regulated?
What is the MAIN function of calcitonin secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland?
What is the MAIN function of calcitonin secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland?
Which of the following is the MAIN function of the parathyroid hormone (PTH) secreted by the parathyroid glands?
Which of the following is the MAIN function of the parathyroid hormone (PTH) secreted by the parathyroid glands?
What is the MAIN function of the pancreatic polypeptide (PP) secreted by the F/PP cells of the pancreatic islets?
What is the MAIN function of the pancreatic polypeptide (PP) secreted by the F/PP cells of the pancreatic islets?
Which of the following is the MAIN function of the sympathetic nervous system in regulating pancreatic function?
Which of the following is the MAIN function of the sympathetic nervous system in regulating pancreatic function?
Which hormone is responsible for promoting the secretion of melanin and lipotropin, leading to darker skin pigmentation?
Which hormone is responsible for promoting the secretion of melanin and lipotropin, leading to darker skin pigmentation?
Which hormone plays a role in both ovulation and progesterone production in women, as well as testicular growth and testosterone production in men?
Which hormone plays a role in both ovulation and progesterone production in women, as well as testicular growth and testosterone production in men?
Which hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland is essential for normal tissue growth and maturation, and also affects aging, sleep, nutritional status, stress, and reproductive hormones?
Which hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland is essential for normal tissue growth and maturation, and also affects aging, sleep, nutritional status, stress, and reproductive hormones?
Which hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland is responsible for increasing the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, as well as promoting the hypertrophy and hyperplasia of thymocytes?
Which hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland is responsible for increasing the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, as well as promoting the hypertrophy and hyperplasia of thymocytes?
Which hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland targets the granulosa cells in women and the Sertoli cells in men, regulating follicle maturation, estrogen production, and spermatogenesis, respectively?
Which hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland targets the granulosa cells in women and the Sertoli cells in men, regulating follicle maturation, estrogen production, and spermatogenesis, respectively?
Which hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland is responsible for increasing steroidogenesis, leading to the production of cortisol, androgenic hormones, and aldosterone?
Which hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland is responsible for increasing steroidogenesis, leading to the production of cortisol, androgenic hormones, and aldosterone?
Which of the following clinical manifestations is NOT typically associated with pancreatic cancer?
Which of the following clinical manifestations is NOT typically associated with pancreatic cancer?
What is the leading cause of acute liver failure characterized by severe impairment or necrosis of liver cells?
What is the leading cause of acute liver failure characterized by severe impairment or necrosis of liver cells?
Which of the following is NOT a type of alcoholic liver disease?
Which of the following is NOT a type of alcoholic liver disease?
What is the primary cause of the accumulation of toxins and disruptions in neurotransmission leading to clinical manifestations like confusion and coma?
What is the primary cause of the accumulation of toxins and disruptions in neurotransmission leading to clinical manifestations like confusion and coma?
Which of the following factors is NOT mentioned as a potential cause of jaundice?
Which of the following factors is NOT mentioned as a potential cause of jaundice?
Which of the following types of hepatitis is transmitted through a different route compared to the others mentioned?
Which of the following types of hepatitis is transmitted through a different route compared to the others mentioned?
Which of the following gastrointestinal cancers is NOT mentioned in the text?
Which of the following gastrointestinal cancers is NOT mentioned in the text?
Which of the following statements about the hypothalamic-pituitary axis is correct?
Which of the following statements about the hypothalamic-pituitary axis is correct?
Which of the following is NOT a consequence of portal hypertension mentioned in the text?
Which of the following is NOT a consequence of portal hypertension mentioned in the text?
Which of the following statements about the composition of gastric juice is FALSE?
Which of the following statements about the composition of gastric juice is FALSE?
Which condition is characterized by the inability to absorb glutens from wheat, barley, rye, and oats due to an inborn error of metabolism?
Which condition is characterized by the inability to absorb glutens from wheat, barley, rye, and oats due to an inborn error of metabolism?
In malabsorption conditions involving bile salt deficiency, which vitamin deficiency can lead to prolonged prothrombin time, purpura, and petechiae?
In malabsorption conditions involving bile salt deficiency, which vitamin deficiency can lead to prolonged prothrombin time, purpura, and petechiae?
In the context of intestinal obstruction, what does the term 'skip lesions' refer to?
In the context of intestinal obstruction, what does the term 'skip lesions' refer to?
Which condition is characterized by herniations of the mucosal layer through the muscle layers of the colon wall?
Which condition is characterized by herniations of the mucosal layer through the muscle layers of the colon wall?
In the context of intestinal obstruction, what type of vomit is indicative of an obstruction in the proximal small intestine?
In the context of intestinal obstruction, what type of vomit is indicative of an obstruction in the proximal small intestine?
Which condition is characterized by massive dilation of the large bowel in critically ill patients and immobilized older adults, without a mechanical obstruction?
Which condition is characterized by massive dilation of the large bowel in critically ill patients and immobilized older adults, without a mechanical obstruction?
Which enzyme deficiency is commonly associated with pancreatitis, pancreatic carcinoma, pancreatic resection, and cystic fibrosis, leading to fat maldigestion?
Which enzyme deficiency is commonly associated with pancreatitis, pancreatic carcinoma, pancreatic resection, and cystic fibrosis, leading to fat maldigestion?
Which clinical manifestation is associated with lactase deficiency, where lactose is not properly broken down?
Which clinical manifestation is associated with lactase deficiency, where lactose is not properly broken down?
Which condition is characterized by continuous lesions limited to the mucosal layer of the colon, without skipping segments?
Which condition is characterized by continuous lesions limited to the mucosal layer of the colon, without skipping segments?
Which of the following is a common clinical manifestation of Crohn's disease?
Which of the following is a common clinical manifestation of Crohn's disease?
What type of hyponatremia is present in SIADH?
What type of hyponatremia is present in SIADH?
Which of the following hormones is typically deficient in panhypopituitarism?
Which of the following hormones is typically deficient in panhypopituitarism?
What is the primary clinical manifestation of SIADH?
What is the primary clinical manifestation of SIADH?
Which of the following is the MAIN cause of hypopituitarism?
Which of the following is the MAIN cause of hypopituitarism?
What is the main clinical manifestation of acromegaly?
What is the main clinical manifestation of acromegaly?
Which of the following is a characteristic of gigantism?
Which of the following is a characteristic of gigantism?
What is the primary function of insulin?
What is the primary function of insulin?
Where is insulin synthesized and secreted from?
Where is insulin synthesized and secreted from?
What is the primary function of glucagon?
What is the primary function of glucagon?
Which zone of the adrenal cortex is responsible for the secretion of aldosterone?
Which zone of the adrenal cortex is responsible for the secretion of aldosterone?
What is the primary function of the catecholamines secreted by the adrenal medulla?
What is the primary function of the catecholamines secreted by the adrenal medulla?
Which hormone secreted by the pancreas is responsible for suppressing glucagon secretion and delaying nutrient absorption after meals?
Which hormone secreted by the pancreas is responsible for suppressing glucagon secretion and delaying nutrient absorption after meals?
What is the primary function of the mineralocorticoid hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex?
What is the primary function of the mineralocorticoid hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex?
Which hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids?
Which hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids?
What is the main function of the glucocorticoid hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex?
What is the main function of the glucocorticoid hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex?
Which hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla is responsible for the 'fight-or-flight' response?
Which hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla is responsible for the 'fight-or-flight' response?
Which type of diabetes is characterized by a relative lack of vitamin D, genetic predisposition, and destruction of pancreatic beta cells leading to a loss of insulin production?
Which type of diabetes is characterized by a relative lack of vitamin D, genetic predisposition, and destruction of pancreatic beta cells leading to a loss of insulin production?
What occurs in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes due to abnormal functions of alpha and beta cells resulting in hyperglycemia and a relative excess of glucagon?
What occurs in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes due to abnormal functions of alpha and beta cells resulting in hyperglycemia and a relative excess of glucagon?
In type 2 diabetes mellitus, what contributes to increased hepatic production of glucose, further worsening hyperglycemia?
In type 2 diabetes mellitus, what contributes to increased hepatic production of glucose, further worsening hyperglycemia?
Which hormone is decreased in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus, contributing to the pathophysiology of the diseases?
Which hormone is decreased in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus, contributing to the pathophysiology of the diseases?
What are common risk factors for developing type 2 diabetes mellitus?
What are common risk factors for developing type 2 diabetes mellitus?
In which type of diabetes does glycose intolerance occur during pregnancy, increasing the risk for developing type 2 diabetes?
In which type of diabetes does glycose intolerance occur during pregnancy, increasing the risk for developing type 2 diabetes?
What is the primary cause of giantism?
What is the primary cause of giantism?
What is the most common cause of acromegaly?
What is the most common cause of acromegaly?
What is the most common cause of Graves' disease?
What is the most common cause of Graves' disease?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of Graves' disease?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of Graves' disease?
What is the primary cause of primary hypothyroidism?
What is the primary cause of primary hypothyroidism?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of hypothyroidism?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of hypothyroidism?
What is the most common cause of primary hyperparathyroidism?
What is the most common cause of primary hyperparathyroidism?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of primary hyperparathyroidism?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of primary hyperparathyroidism?
What is the primary cause of type 1 diabetes mellitus?
What is the primary cause of type 1 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of uncontrolled diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of uncontrolled diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is NOT a function of insulin?
Which of the following is NOT a function of insulin?
What is the primary function of amylin when co-secreted with insulin?
What is the primary function of amylin when co-secreted with insulin?
What stimulates the release of glucagon from alpha cells?
What stimulates the release of glucagon from alpha cells?
Which hormone increases blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis?
Which hormone increases blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis?
Which adrenal hormone is responsible for sodium retention and potassium loss?
Which adrenal hormone is responsible for sodium retention and potassium loss?
What is the primary function of epinephrine secretion from the adrenal medulla?
What is the primary function of epinephrine secretion from the adrenal medulla?
Which hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol?
Which hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol?
What is the most common cause of primary hyperthyroidism?
What is the most common cause of primary hyperthyroidism?
Which of the following is the MAIN clinical manifestation of acromegaly?
Which of the following is the MAIN clinical manifestation of acromegaly?
What is the most common cause of secondary hypothyroidism?
What is the most common cause of secondary hypothyroidism?
Which of the following is the MOST life-threatening complication of hyperthyroidism?
Which of the following is the MOST life-threatening complication of hyperthyroidism?
What is the MAIN risk factor for the development of thyroid cancer?
What is the MAIN risk factor for the development of thyroid cancer?
Which of the following is the MOST common cause of primary hyperparathyroidism?
Which of the following is the MOST common cause of primary hyperparathyroidism?
What is the MAIN clinical manifestation of hypoparathyroidism?
What is the MAIN clinical manifestation of hypoparathyroidism?
What is the MOST common cause of type 2 diabetes mellitus?
What is the MOST common cause of type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is the MAIN function of the stellate cells (Ito cells) in the liver?
Which of the following is the MAIN function of the stellate cells (Ito cells) in the liver?
What is the MOST common cause of SIADH (syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion)?
What is the MOST common cause of SIADH (syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion)?
Which of the following is the primary pathophysiological mechanism underlying type 1 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is the primary pathophysiological mechanism underlying type 1 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is a key feature of type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is a key feature of type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following factors is NOT associated with an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following factors is NOT associated with an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus?
What is the primary pathophysiological mechanism underlying gestational diabetes mellitus?
What is the primary pathophysiological mechanism underlying gestational diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following hormones is decreased in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following hormones is decreased in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is a common complication associated with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is a common complication associated with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus?
Which of the following is the primary pathophysiological mechanism underlying the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH)?
Which of the following is the primary pathophysiological mechanism underlying the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH)?
Which type of hyponatremia is characteristic of SIADH?
Which type of hyponatremia is characteristic of SIADH?
In panhypopituitarism, which hormone deficiency is responsible for the lack of growth in children?
In panhypopituitarism, which hormone deficiency is responsible for the lack of growth in children?
What is the primary pathophysiological mechanism underlying acromegaly?
What is the primary pathophysiological mechanism underlying acromegaly?
Which condition is characterized by excessive growth of the extremities and facial bones due to excessive growth hormone secretion during childhood?
Which condition is characterized by excessive growth of the extremities and facial bones due to excessive growth hormone secretion during childhood?
Which hormone deficiency in panhypopituitarism is responsible for the lack of secondary sex characteristics?
Which hormone deficiency in panhypopituitarism is responsible for the lack of secondary sex characteristics?
What is the primary function of the corpus luteum during pregnancy?
What is the primary function of the corpus luteum during pregnancy?
What is the main role of gonadotropins and hormones in regulating ovarian function?
What is the main role of gonadotropins and hormones in regulating ovarian function?
What is the primary function of LH (luteinizing hormone) in the ovarian cycle?
What is the primary function of LH (luteinizing hormone) in the ovarian cycle?
What is the primary function of estrogen in the ovarian cycle?
What is the primary function of estrogen in the ovarian cycle?
What is the primary trigger for the menstrual cycle if the ovum is not fertilized?
What is the primary trigger for the menstrual cycle if the ovum is not fertilized?
What is the primary cause of precocious puberty in 5% of cases?
What is the primary cause of precocious puberty in 5% of cases?
What is the main difference between primary and secondary dysmenorrhea?
What is the main difference between primary and secondary dysmenorrhea?
What is the main function of the GPR54 receptor in the GnRH axis?
What is the main function of the GPR54 receptor in the GnRH axis?
Which form of precocious puberty involves the development of only one secondary sex characteristic?
Which form of precocious puberty involves the development of only one secondary sex characteristic?
What is the primary pathological mechanism underlying primary dysmenorrhea?
What is the primary pathological mechanism underlying primary dysmenorrhea?
What is the main difference between primary and secondary amenorrhea?
What is the main difference between primary and secondary amenorrhea?
Which hormone is responsible for maintaining the thickened endometrium during the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle?
Which hormone is responsible for maintaining the thickened endometrium during the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle?
What induces ovulation by causing the granulosa layer to produce progesterone?
What induces ovulation by causing the granulosa layer to produce progesterone?
Which male reproductive organ is responsible for producing fructose as a source of energy for sperm?
Which male reproductive organ is responsible for producing fructose as a source of energy for sperm?
What is the primary function of Leydig cells in the testes?
What is the primary function of Leydig cells in the testes?
Which structure in the penis contains the opening of the urethra?
Which structure in the penis contains the opening of the urethra?
What is the function of the follicular or proliferative phase in the menstrual cycle?
What is the function of the follicular or proliferative phase in the menstrual cycle?
Which cells are responsible for promoting spermatogenesis in males?
Which cells are responsible for promoting spermatogenesis in males?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for maintaining pregnancy in females?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for maintaining pregnancy in females?
What hormone inhibits pituitary FSH secretion in males?
What hormone inhibits pituitary FSH secretion in males?
What is the primary hormone responsible for virilization in males?
What is the primary hormone responsible for virilization in males?
Which female sex hormone is the most potent and plentiful?
Which female sex hormone is the most potent and plentiful?
What happens to the ovaries during perimenopause?
What happens to the ovaries during perimenopause?
Which male sex hormone is primarily produced in the Leydig cells of the testes?
Which male sex hormone is primarily produced in the Leydig cells of the testes?
'Thyrotoxic crisis' or 'thyroid storm' can result from excessive stress on patients with what condition?
'Thyrotoxic crisis' or 'thyroid storm' can result from excessive stress on patients with what condition?
'Androgens' are mainly associated with which sex?
'Androgens' are mainly associated with which sex?
At what age does menopause typically occur?
At what age does menopause typically occur?
What is the most common cause of pelvic inflammatory disease?
What is the most common cause of pelvic inflammatory disease?
Which of the following is a common symptom of Bartholin cyst?
Which of the following is a common symptom of Bartholin cyst?
What is the primary cause of cystocele?
What is the primary cause of cystocele?
Which type of ovarian cyst is more likely to be associated with malignancy?
Which type of ovarian cyst is more likely to be associated with malignancy?
What is the primary symptom associated with uterine leiomyomas (fibroids)?
What is the primary symptom associated with uterine leiomyomas (fibroids)?
Which of the following is a characteristic of adenomyosis?
Which of the following is a characteristic of adenomyosis?
What is the primary cause of endometriosis?
What is the primary cause of endometriosis?
Which of the following is a common symptom of endometriosis?
Which of the following is a common symptom of endometriosis?
What is the main function of the vaginal pH in preventing vaginal infections?
What is the main function of the vaginal pH in preventing vaginal infections?
Which of the following factors can lead to changes in vaginal pH and increase the risk of vaginal infections?
Which of the following factors can lead to changes in vaginal pH and increase the risk of vaginal infections?
What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes primary amenorrhea from secondary amenorrhea?
What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes primary amenorrhea from secondary amenorrhea?
In which compartment is the disorder likely to be located if a woman experiences a disruption in the function of the anterior pituitary?
In which compartment is the disorder likely to be located if a woman experiences a disruption in the function of the anterior pituitary?
What is the key feature that differentiates dysfunctional uterine bleeding (DUB) from other menstrual disorders?
What is the key feature that differentiates dysfunctional uterine bleeding (DUB) from other menstrual disorders?
Which hormone imbalance is commonly associated with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)?
Which hormone imbalance is commonly associated with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)?
What physiological event triggers the onset of physiologic perimenopause or pathologically premature ovulatory failure?
What physiological event triggers the onset of physiologic perimenopause or pathologically premature ovulatory failure?
What is the primary factor contributing to follicular failure and persistent lack of ovulation in women with PCOS?
What is the primary factor contributing to follicular failure and persistent lack of ovulation in women with PCOS?
What is the most common type of recurrent UTI in men?
What is the most common type of recurrent UTI in men?
What is the primary cause of prostadynia, a type of nonbacterial prostate inflammation?
What is the primary cause of prostadynia, a type of nonbacterial prostate inflammation?
Which of the following is a risk factor for prostate cancer mentioned in the text?
Which of the following is a risk factor for prostate cancer mentioned in the text?
What is the primary clinical manifestation of chronic bacterial prostatitis in men?
What is the primary clinical manifestation of chronic bacterial prostatitis in men?
How does chronic bacterial prostatitis in men typically affect the prostate gland?
How does chronic bacterial prostatitis in men typically affect the prostate gland?
What is the most common cancer in American men according to the text?
What is the most common cancer in American men according to the text?
What is the primary cause of cervical cancer?
What is the primary cause of cervical cancer?
Which of the following is a risk factor for endometrial cancer?
Which of the following is a risk factor for endometrial cancer?
What is the primary cause of urethral stricture?
What is the primary cause of urethral stricture?
What is the main difference between phimosis and paraphimosis?
What is the main difference between phimosis and paraphimosis?
What is the primary cause of Peyronie's disease?
What is the primary cause of Peyronie's disease?
What is the primary cause of varicocele?
What is the primary cause of varicocele?
What is the primary cause of a hydrocele?
What is the primary cause of a hydrocele?
What is the primary cause of cryptorchidism?
What is the primary cause of cryptorchidism?
What is the primary cause of orchitis?
What is the primary cause of orchitis?
What is the primary risk factor for penile cancer?
What is the primary risk factor for penile cancer?
Which condition is a complication of epididymitis?
Which condition is a complication of epididymitis?
What is the most common cause of orchitis?
What is the most common cause of orchitis?
Which condition is associated with urethral compression?
Which condition is associated with urethral compression?
What is the most curable type of cancer?
What is the most curable type of cancer?
Which infection causes inflammation of the epididymis?
Which infection causes inflammation of the epididymis?
What is the cause of cryptorchidism?
What is the cause of cryptorchidism?
What is a common risk factor for testicular cancer?
What is a common risk factor for testicular cancer?
What is the primary function of the corpus luteum during pregnancy?
What is the primary function of the corpus luteum during pregnancy?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for triggering ovulation?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for triggering ovulation?
What is the main function of estrogen during the menstrual cycle?
What is the main function of estrogen during the menstrual cycle?
What is the primary function of the menstrual cycle phases?
What is the primary function of the menstrual cycle phases?
What is the primary cause of ovarian dysfunction and infertility?
What is the primary cause of ovarian dysfunction and infertility?
What causes the endometrium to proliferate during the menstrual cycle?
What causes the endometrium to proliferate during the menstrual cycle?
Which phase of the menstrual cycle is characterized by the thickened endometrium developing blood vessels and secretory glands?
Which phase of the menstrual cycle is characterized by the thickened endometrium developing blood vessels and secretory glands?
What happens if there is no implantation during the menstrual cycle?
What happens if there is no implantation during the menstrual cycle?
Which male reproductive organ curves over the posterior portion of each testis and is where sperm matures?
Which male reproductive organ curves over the posterior portion of each testis and is where sperm matures?
What is the main function of the seminal vesicles in male reproductive physiology?
What is the main function of the seminal vesicles in male reproductive physiology?
Which gland secretes a thin, milky fluid with an alkaline pH to help sperm survive in the female reproductive tract?
Which gland secretes a thin, milky fluid with an alkaline pH to help sperm survive in the female reproductive tract?
Which of the following is the most common cause of pelvic inflammatory disease?
Which of the following is the most common cause of pelvic inflammatory disease?
Which of the following is the main cause of Bartholin gland cyst formation?
Which of the following is the main cause of Bartholin gland cyst formation?
What is the primary cause of a cystocele?
What is the primary cause of a cystocele?
What is the most common symptom associated with uterine leiomyomas (fibroids)?
What is the most common symptom associated with uterine leiomyomas (fibroids)?
Which of the following is the primary cause of adenomyosis?
Which of the following is the primary cause of adenomyosis?
Which type of ovarian cyst is more likely to be associated with malignancy?
Which type of ovarian cyst is more likely to be associated with malignancy?
What is the primary mechanism by which follicular cysts develop?
What is the primary mechanism by which follicular cysts develop?
Which of the following is the most common cause of vaginal prolapse?
Which of the following is the most common cause of vaginal prolapse?
What is the primary clinical manifestation of a ruptured corpus luteum cyst?
What is the primary clinical manifestation of a ruptured corpus luteum cyst?
What is the primary cause of endometriosis?
What is the primary cause of endometriosis?
Which risk factor is NOT associated with prostate cancer?
Which risk factor is NOT associated with prostate cancer?
What condition is characterized by prostatic inflammation without bacterial infection?
What condition is characterized by prostatic inflammation without bacterial infection?
What leads to the firmness and irregularity in shape of the prostate due to repeated infections?
What leads to the firmness and irregularity in shape of the prostate due to repeated infections?
Which symptom is characteristic of prostatodynia?
Which symptom is characteristic of prostatodynia?
Which bacterium is commonly found in chronic bacterial UTIs in men?
Which bacterium is commonly found in chronic bacterial UTIs in men?
What is the most common type of recurrent UTI in men?
What is the most common type of recurrent UTI in men?
Which of the following statements accurately describes precocious puberty?
Which of the following statements accurately describes precocious puberty?
What is the primary mechanism underlying primary dysmenorrhea?
What is the primary mechanism underlying primary dysmenorrhea?
Which of the following statements accurately describes secondary amenorrhea?
Which of the following statements accurately describes secondary amenorrhea?
Which of the following conditions is NOT mentioned as a possible cause of delayed puberty in 5% of cases?
Which of the following conditions is NOT mentioned as a possible cause of delayed puberty in 5% of cases?
What is the primary function of the GPR54 receptor mentioned in the text?
What is the primary function of the GPR54 receptor mentioned in the text?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between LH, FSH, and GnRH in the context of delayed puberty?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between LH, FSH, and GnRH in the context of delayed puberty?
What is the main complication associated with untreated cryptorchidism?
What is the main complication associated with untreated cryptorchidism?
Which of the following is the MAIN cause of acute orchitis?
Which of the following is the MAIN cause of acute orchitis?
What is the primary treatment for testicular torsion?
What is the primary treatment for testicular torsion?
Which of the following is the MAIN risk factor for the development of testicular cancer?
Which of the following is the MAIN risk factor for the development of testicular cancer?
What is the primary cause of the lower urinary tract symptoms associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)?
What is the primary cause of the lower urinary tract symptoms associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)?
Which type of prostatitis is characterized by a sudden onset of malaise, fever, and urinary symptoms?
Which type of prostatitis is characterized by a sudden onset of malaise, fever, and urinary symptoms?
What is the primary mechanism by which benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) develops?
What is the primary mechanism by which benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) develops?
Which of the following is a common symptom of chronic prostatitis?
Which of the following is a common symptom of chronic prostatitis?
What is the primary risk factor for the development of prostate cancer?
What is the primary risk factor for the development of prostate cancer?
Which of the following is the MAIN complication associated with epididymitis?
Which of the following is the MAIN complication associated with epididymitis?
What is the primary role of the Sertoli cells during spermatogenesis?
What is the primary role of the Sertoli cells during spermatogenesis?
Which of the following statements about inhibin is correct?
Which of the following statements about inhibin is correct?
What is the primary function of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in male sexual development?
What is the primary function of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in male sexual development?
Which of the following hormones plays a crucial role in regulating testosterone biosynthesis in the Leydig cells?
Which of the following hormones plays a crucial role in regulating testosterone biosynthesis in the Leydig cells?
What is the primary cause of the irregular menstrual cycles and hormonal fluctuations observed during perimenopause?
What is the primary cause of the irregular menstrual cycles and hormonal fluctuations observed during perimenopause?
Which of the following changes is NOT typically observed in men as they age?
Which of the following changes is NOT typically observed in men as they age?
What is the primary function of prolactin in the male reproductive system?
What is the primary function of prolactin in the male reproductive system?
Which of the following is a characteristic of the changes observed in the female urogenital tract during menopause?
Which of the following is a characteristic of the changes observed in the female urogenital tract during menopause?
Which of the following statements about the effects of aging on the male reproductive system is correct?
Which of the following statements about the effects of aging on the male reproductive system is correct?
What is the primary cause of the increased risk of osteoporosis and fractures observed in postmenopausal women?
What is the primary cause of the increased risk of osteoporosis and fractures observed in postmenopausal women?
What is the most common cause of primary amenorrhea?
What is the most common cause of primary amenorrhea?
In dysfunctional uterine bleeding, what is the main cause of heavy or irregular bleeding?
In dysfunctional uterine bleeding, what is the main cause of heavy or irregular bleeding?
Which compartment is associated with disorders of the CNS or hypothalamic factors?
Which compartment is associated with disorders of the CNS or hypothalamic factors?
What is the hallmark feature of polycystic ovarian syndrome?
What is the hallmark feature of polycystic ovarian syndrome?
In PCOS, what role does insulin play in androgen secretion?
In PCOS, what role does insulin play in androgen secretion?
Which hormone imbalance leads to persistent lack of ovulation in PCOS?
Which hormone imbalance leads to persistent lack of ovulation in PCOS?
What hormonal changes contribute to the emotional symptoms of premenstrual syndrome?
What hormonal changes contribute to the emotional symptoms of premenstrual syndrome?
What type of physical changes in the menstrual cycle lead to premenstrual syndrome?
What type of physical changes in the menstrual cycle lead to premenstrual syndrome?
What is the primary outcome of high insulin levels on androgen secretion in PCOS?
What is the primary outcome of high insulin levels on androgen secretion in PCOS?
Which of the following is a common cause of endometriosis?
Which of the following is a common cause of endometriosis?
In cervical cancer, what is the necessary precursor to cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and invasive cervical carcinoma?
In cervical cancer, what is the necessary precursor to cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and invasive cervical carcinoma?
Which of the following cancers is considered the most common in the pelvic region of women?
Which of the following cancers is considered the most common in the pelvic region of women?
Which of the following factors is associated with an increased risk of developing ovarian cancer?
Which of the following factors is associated with an increased risk of developing ovarian cancer?
What is the primary cause of urethritis in males?
What is the primary cause of urethritis in males?
Which of the following is a common symptom of urethral stricture?
Which of the following is a common symptom of urethral stricture?
What is the primary difference between phimosis and paraphimosis?
What is the primary difference between phimosis and paraphimosis?
In Peyronie's disease, what is the primary cause of the lateral curvature of the penis during erection?
In Peyronie's disease, what is the primary cause of the lateral curvature of the penis during erection?
Which of the following statements regarding penile cancer is true?
Which of the following statements regarding penile cancer is true?
Which of the following conditions is characterized by a painless diverticulum of the epididymis containing milky fluid with sperm?
Which of the following conditions is characterized by a painless diverticulum of the epididymis containing milky fluid with sperm?
What is the common cause of lower genital tract infection in women?
What is the common cause of lower genital tract infection in women?
Which organism causes pediculosis pubis?
Which organism causes pediculosis pubis?
Which clinical manifestation is typically rare in Trichomonas vaginalis infection?
Which clinical manifestation is typically rare in Trichomonas vaginalis infection?
How is pediculosis pubis primarily transmitted?
How is pediculosis pubis primarily transmitted?
What distinguishes Trichomonas vaginalis infection in men from that in women?
What distinguishes Trichomonas vaginalis infection in men from that in women?
What distinguishes proliferative breast lesions with atypia from those without atypia?
What distinguishes proliferative breast lesions with atypia from those without atypia?
Which type of breast lesion involves abnormal cell proliferation but without signs of malignancy?
Which type of breast lesion involves abnormal cell proliferation but without signs of malignancy?
What is a common risk factor for male breast cancer based on the text?
What is a common risk factor for male breast cancer based on the text?
Which sexually transmitted infection is caused by a mite burrowing under the skin?
Which sexually transmitted infection is caused by a mite burrowing under the skin?
Which bacterial infection can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and disseminated infection?
Which bacterial infection can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and disseminated infection?
What is a characteristic symptom associated with genital herpes?
What is a characteristic symptom associated with genital herpes?
Which viral infection is associated with various cancers?
Which viral infection is associated with various cancers?
What distinguishes benign breast lesions from malignant breast lesions?
What distinguishes benign breast lesions from malignant breast lesions?
What differentiates proliferative breast lesions without atypia from those with atypical hyperplasia?
What differentiates proliferative breast lesions without atypia from those with atypical hyperplasia?
What distinguishes viral HPV from genital herpes?
What distinguishes viral HPV from genital herpes?
Which parasite causes a lower genital tract infection characterized by adherence to squamous epithelial cells and copious frothy malodorous discharge?
Which parasite causes a lower genital tract infection characterized by adherence to squamous epithelial cells and copious frothy malodorous discharge?
What is the common term for Pediculosis pubis, a condition caused by Phthirus pubis transmitted via sexual contact or infested linens?
What is the common term for Pediculosis pubis, a condition caused by Phthirus pubis transmitted via sexual contact or infested linens?
Which clinical manifestation is rarely seen in men infected with Trichomonas vaginalis but is associated with the condition in women?
Which clinical manifestation is rarely seen in men infected with Trichomonas vaginalis but is associated with the condition in women?
What is the life cycle duration of the crab louse, Phthirus pubis, causing Pediculosis pubis?
What is the life cycle duration of the crab louse, Phthirus pubis, causing Pediculosis pubis?
Which term describes the allergic sensitization and secondary infections that can result from scratching in Pediculosis pubis?
Which term describes the allergic sensitization and secondary infections that can result from scratching in Pediculosis pubis?
Which type of breast lesion has the highest risk of developing into breast cancer?
Which type of breast lesion has the highest risk of developing into breast cancer?
What is the most common risk factor for the development of male breast cancer?
What is the most common risk factor for the development of male breast cancer?
Which sexually transmitted infection is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae and can lead to complications like pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)?
Which sexually transmitted infection is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae and can lead to complications like pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)?
Which stage of syphilis is characterized by severe systemic manifestations, including cardiovascular and neurological complications?
Which stage of syphilis is characterized by severe systemic manifestations, including cardiovascular and neurological complications?
Which sexually transmitted infection is associated with the development of genital warts and various types of cancer?
Which sexually transmitted infection is associated with the development of genital warts and various types of cancer?
Which of the following is a benign skin infection caused by the Molluscum contagiosum virus, resulting in the formation of contagious lesions?
Which of the following is a benign skin infection caused by the Molluscum contagiosum virus, resulting in the formation of contagious lesions?
Which sexually transmitted infection is caused by the Sarcoptes scabiei mite and is characterized by the burrowing of the mite under the skin?
Which sexually transmitted infection is caused by the Sarcoptes scabiei mite and is characterized by the burrowing of the mite under the skin?
Which type of breast cancer is characterized by the proliferation of abnormal cells within the milk ducts, without invasion into the surrounding breast tissue?
Which type of breast cancer is characterized by the proliferation of abnormal cells within the milk ducts, without invasion into the surrounding breast tissue?
What is the primary physiological function of the enterochromaffin-like cells in the gastric glands?
What is the primary physiological function of the enterochromaffin-like cells in the gastric glands?
Which hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla is responsible for the 'fight-or-flight' response?
Which hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla is responsible for the 'fight-or-flight' response?
Study Notes
Ovarian Cycle and Menstrual Cycle
- Ovarian cycle: continuous from puberty to menopause; after ejecting a mature ovum, the follicle develops into the corpus luteum
- Corpus luteum secretes hormones to support pregnancy if the ovum is fertilized; otherwise, it degenerates and triggers the maturation of another follicle
Menstrual Cycle Phases
- Follicular phase (days 1-14): FSH stimulates follicle and ovum maturation; estrogen causes endometrium to proliferate
- Ovulation (day 14): LH surge triggers ovulation
- Luteal phase (days 15-28): corpus luteum develops; estrogen and progesterone maintain the thickened endometrium
Hormones and Gonadotropins
- Gonadotropins: FSH, LH, and GnRH regulate the ovarian cycle
- Estrogens: primary hormone in females; estradiol, estrone, and estriol are forms of estrogen
- Progesterone: hormone of pregnancy; needs LH
Male Reproductive System
- Testes: produce gametes (sperm) and sex hormones (testosterone, androgens)
- Epididymis: where sperm matures
- Vas deferens: stores sperm; duct with muscular layers capable of powerful peristalsis
- Penis: consists of glans, prepuce, corpora cavernosa, and urethra
- Internal genitalia: conduct sperm and glandular secretions from testes to urethral opening
Spermatogenesis
- Spermatogonia: primitive male gametes; undergo continuous mitosis in the seminiferous tubules of the testes
- Develop into primary spermatocytes, then secondary spermatocytes, spermatids, and mature sperm
Aging and the Reproductive System
- Female: perimenopause, menopause, and ovarian changes
- Male: function diminishes with age, but does not cease; testes atrophy and produce less testosterone
Pathophysiology
- Endometriosis: presence of functioning endometrial tissue outside the uterus; causes inflammatory reaction
- Cervical cancer: arises from cervical epithelium; risk factors include HPV infection
- Other female cancers: vaginal, vulvar, endometrial, and ovarian cancer
- Male cancers: penile, urethral, and testicular cancer
Urological Disorders
- Urethritis: inflammation of the urethra; usually caused by an STI
- Urethral stricture: fibrotic narrowing of the urethra; caused by trauma or infection
- Phimosis and paraphimosis: inability to retract or replace the foreskin
- Peyronie disease: fibrous plaques in the erectile tissue of the corpus cavernosa; causes bent penis
- Priapism: prolonged painful penile erection; associated with spinal cord trauma and sickle cell disease
Male Infections and Inflammations
- Epididymitis: inflammation of the epididymis; caused by bacterial or viral infection
- Orchitis: inflammation of the testes; caused by bacterial or viral infection
- Prostatitis: inflammation of the prostate; caused by bacterial or viral infection
- Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH): enlargement of the prostate gland; causes lower urinary tract symptoms### Prostate Issues
- Chronic bacterial prostatitis: recurrent urinary symptoms and persistence of pathogenic bacteria (gram-) in urine or prostatic fluid
- Most common recurrent UTI in men
- Clinical manifestations: frequency, urgency, dysuria, perineal discomfort, low back pain, sexual dysfunction
- Prostate only slightly enlarged or boggy
- Fibrosis caused by repeated infections leads to firmness and irregularity in shape
Prostate Cancer
- Most common cancer in American males; 3rd most common worldwide
- Asymptomatic until advanced stages – symptoms similar to BPH
- Risk factors:
- Dietary: high fat, protein, calcium; low fiber
- Hormones: androgen sensitive cancer, anabolic steroid use
- Vasectomy: elevates circulating androgens – immunologic mechanisms involving antisperm antibodies, reduced seminal fluid levels of active metabolite of testosterone in the prostate
- Chronic inflammation
- Familial factors
Puberty
- Precocious puberty: sexual maturation before age 6 in black girls; age 7 in white girls; age 9 in boys – most common in girls
- Forms:
- Complete: sex appropriate, onset of all pubertal features
- Mixed: not sex appropriate, virilization of a girl or feminization of a boy
- Partial: development of one secondary sex characteristic only, can be in combination
- Central precocious puberty is GnRH dependent – HPG axis is working normally but prematurely
- Typically caused by neoplasms that secrete hormones
Dysmenorrhea
- Patho: result of the effects of excess endometrial prostaglandin production and enhanced by progesterone
- Primary dysmenorrhea: painful menstruation associated with prostaglandin release in ovulatory cycles but not pelvic disease
- Secondary dysmenorrhea: painful menstruation related to pelvic pathology – can occur any time in the menstrual cycle
GI System
- Anatomy: enteric nervous system (extrinsic and intrinsic)
- Autonomic (involuntary) and hormonal control [except chewing, swallowing, defecation]
- Vagus nerve: stimulates hormones that trigger or inhibit muscular contractions – GI motility; timely secretion of substances that aid in digestion
- Salivary glands: controlled by ANS; cholinergic parasympathetic fibers stimulate salivary glands; sympathetic beta-adrenergic stimulation decreases salivary secretion
- Esophagus: conducts substances from oropharynx to stomach; upper esophageal sphincter prevents entry of air into the esophagus during respiration; lower esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter) prevents regurgitation from the stomach
- Stomach: hollow muscular organ – stores food, secretes digestive juices, mixes food with juices – propels chyme into duodenum
- Innervated by sympathetic and parasympathetic
- Gastric motility: swallowing causes fundus to relax; gastrin and cholecystokinin enhance relaxation of stomach; gastrin and motilin and low blood glucose enhance peristalsis; sympathetic activity, secretin, cholecystokinin inhibit peristalsis
SIADH
- Patho: levels of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) are abnormally high
- Causes: ectopic secretion of ADH; after surgery and some cancers
- Clinical manifestations: euvolemic hypotonic (dilutional) hyponatremia; total body water: increased; total body sodium: unchanged; extracellular fluid: increased; edema: absent
Hypopituitarism
- Patho: failure of the pituitary gland to produce hormones
- Deficiencies: growth hormone, prolactin, ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH
- Basic results of deficiencies: growth hormone deficiency: growth retardation; prolactin deficiency: lactation failure; ACTH deficiency: adrenal insufficiency; TSH deficiency: hypothyroidism; FSH/LH deficiency: hypogonadism
Small Intestine
- Duodenum: receives chyme from the stomach through the pyloric valve; absorbs vitamins, minerals, fats, and sugars
- Chyme stimulates liver and gallbladder to deliver bile and the pancreas to deliver digestive enzymes and alkaline secretions
- Jejunum: absorbs carbs and proteins across intestinal mucosa by active transport into the villus capillaries
- Ileum: absorbs bile salts, vitamin B12, and chloride
- All nutrients are absorbed in the small intestines as well as 85% of the water and fluid intake
Colon
- Cecum pouch connects the large intestine to the small intestine which is where the appendix is
- Serves as a reservoir for fecal mass and absorbs water and electrolytes – no nutrient absorption
- Feces (excrement) enters sigmoid colon – consists of food residue, unabsorbed GI secretions, shed epithelial cells, bacteria### Diabetes Mellitus
- Definition: a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels resulting from defects in insulin production, insulin action, or both
- Categories:
- Type 1: autoimmune, environmental and genetic factors trigger cell-mediated destruction of beta cells
- Type 2: insulin resistance and decreased insulin secretion by beta cells
- Gestational: any degree of glucose intolerance with the onset or first recognition occurring during pregnancy
- Clinical manifestations:
- Polydipsia, polyuria, polyphagia, weight loss, fatigue
- Fatigue, pruritis, recurrent infections, visual changes, neuropathy
- Risk factors:
- Age, obesity, HTN, physical inactivity, family history, metabolic syndrome
- Complications:
- Hypoglycemia, DKA, HHNKS, Somogye effect, dawn phenomenon
Pituitary Gland Disorders
- Hypopituitarism:
- Definition: decreased production of one or more pituitary hormones
- Causes: pituitary tumor, radiation, trauma, infection, inflammation
- Clinical manifestations: varied, depending on which hormone is deficient
- Hyperpituitarism:
- Definition: excessive production of one or more pituitary hormones
- Causes: pituitary tumor, genetic mutation
- Clinical manifestations: acromegaly, gigantism
Thyroid Gland Disorders
- Hyperthyroidism:
- Definition: excessive production of thyroid hormones
- Causes: Graves' disease, toxic multinodular goiter, toxic adenoma
- Clinical manifestations: weight loss, heat intolerance, fatigue, diarrhea, tremors
- Hypothyroidism:
- Definition: decreased production of thyroid hormones
- Causes: Hashimoto's thyroiditis, iodine deficiency
- Clinical manifestations: fatigue, cold intolerance, weight gain, constipation
- Thyroid cancer:
- Most common endocrine malignancy
- Risk factors: ionizing radiation, iodine deficiency
- Clinical manifestations: changes in voice and swallowing, difficulty breathing
Parathyroid Gland Disorders
- Hyperparathyroidism:
- Definition: excessive production of parathyroid hormone
- Causes: parathyroid adenoma, hyperplasia, cancer
- Clinical manifestations: hypercalcemia, kidney stones, bone disease
- Hypoparathyroidism:
- Definition: decreased production of parathyroid hormone
- Causes: parathyroid damage, autoimmune disorders
- Clinical manifestations: hypocalcemia, muscle spasms, tetany
Reproductive Endocrinology
- Amenorrhea:
- Definition: absence of menstruation
- Categories: primary, secondary
- Dysfunctional uterine bleeding:
- Definition: heavy or irregular bleeding in the absence of disease
- Causes: anovulation, progesterone deficiency, estrogen excess
- Polycystic ovarian syndrome:
- Definition: oligo-ovulation or anovulation and elevated levels of androgens
- Causes: insulin resistance, genetic factors
- Clinical manifestations: infertility, menstrual bleeding disorders, hirsutism, acne
Other Endocrine Disorders
- PMS:
- Definition: cyclic physical, psychological, or behavioral changes that impair interpersonal relationships or interfere with usual daily activities
- Patho: abnormal tissue response to normal changes of the menstrual cycle
- PID:
- Definition: inflammation of the upper genital tract
- Causes: bacterial infection, IUD use
- Clinical manifestations: pelvic pain, fever, abnormal vaginal discharge
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Description
Prepare for your exam on gastrointestinal physiology with this study guide covering the anatomy of the GI system, enteric nervous system, autonomic and hormonal control, vagus nerve, and muscular contractions. Test your knowledge on digestive system functions and controls.
