Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary composition of the continental crust?
What is the primary composition of the continental crust?
What is the average thickness of oceanic crust?
What is the average thickness of oceanic crust?
The theory of plate tectonics primarily describes the dynamics of which part of the Earth?
The theory of plate tectonics primarily describes the dynamics of which part of the Earth?
Which of the following statements accurately reflects the age of the oceanic crust?
Which of the following statements accurately reflects the age of the oceanic crust?
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What is the average density of continental crust?
What is the average density of continental crust?
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Which rock type is primarily associated with oceanic crust composition?
Which rock type is primarily associated with oceanic crust composition?
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What is the primary state of the outer core of the Earth?
What is the primary state of the outer core of the Earth?
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Which geological process is NOT explained by the theory of plate tectonics?
Which geological process is NOT explained by the theory of plate tectonics?
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Which layer of the Earth is primarily composed of molten rock and is involved in the tectonic processes that cause earthquakes?
Which layer of the Earth is primarily composed of molten rock and is involved in the tectonic processes that cause earthquakes?
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What is the estimated age of the Earth based on scientific theories?
What is the estimated age of the Earth based on scientific theories?
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Which process is primarily responsible for the formation of continents?
Which process is primarily responsible for the formation of continents?
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What geological process contributes to the erosion of mountains?
What geological process contributes to the erosion of mountains?
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Which of the following is NOT a recognized branch of Earth Sciences?
Which of the following is NOT a recognized branch of Earth Sciences?
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In terms of geological time, which epoch is often associated with significant continental drift due to tectonic activity?
In terms of geological time, which epoch is often associated with significant continental drift due to tectonic activity?
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Which aspect of Earth's systems is heavily influenced by the process of sedimentation?
Which aspect of Earth's systems is heavily influenced by the process of sedimentation?
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Which layer of the Earth is solid and primarily composed of iron and nickel?
Which layer of the Earth is solid and primarily composed of iron and nickel?
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What is the primary function of the atmosphere in relation to the Earth's surface?
What is the primary function of the atmosphere in relation to the Earth's surface?
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Which of the following components constitutes the hydrosphere?
Which of the following components constitutes the hydrosphere?
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Which of the following correctly describes the cryosphere?
Which of the following correctly describes the cryosphere?
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Which layer of the earth includes all life and ecosystems?
Which layer of the earth includes all life and ecosystems?
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In what way do the layers of the earth interact with one another?
In what way do the layers of the earth interact with one another?
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What percentage of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans, constituting a major part of the hydrosphere?
What percentage of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans, constituting a major part of the hydrosphere?
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Which interaction is a key aspect of how life engages with the various earth systems?
Which interaction is a key aspect of how life engages with the various earth systems?
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Which factor is primarily responsible for the formation of mountains?
Which factor is primarily responsible for the formation of mountains?
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Study Notes
Lecture Information
- Course Title: Earth Sciences for Civil Engineering
- Lecture Number: 2
- Lecturer: Dr. Moheldeen A. Hejazi
- University: Altınbas University
Earth Sciences
- Definition: The study of the Earth and its systems.
Earth Sciences Branches
- Geology
- General geology
- Structural geology
- Sedimentology/Sedimentary petrography
- Petroleum Geology
- Stratigraphy
- Ore deposits-Geochemistry
- Geochemistry
- Mineral deposits
- Mineralogy-Petrography
- Mineralogy
- Petrography
- Applied Geology
- Engineering Geology
- Hidrogeology
- Mathematical Geology
Earth's Processes, Potentials, and Hazards
- Includes processes, potentials, and hazards of Earth
Age of the World and Theories of Creation
- Questions regarding the age and creation theories of the world
Layers of the Earth
- Crust
- Oceanic (0-6 km, young, < 180 million years)
- Continental (0-34 km, older, up to 3.8 billion years)
- Mantle
- Upper (34-670 km)
- Lower (670-2900 km)
- Core
- Outer (liquid)
- Inner (solid)
Formation and Erosion of Continents
- Discussion of continental formation process.
Formation and Erosion of Mountains
- Discussion of mountain formation and erosion processes.
Earth Systems
- Atmosphere - Blanket of gases surrounding the Earth; protection from Sun's heat & UV rays
- Hydrosphere - Water portion of Earth; Oceans (most prominent - 71% of Earth's surface)
- Cryosphere - Icy portion of Earth's crust; Glaciers, Permafrost and ground ice, Polar ice caps
- Biosphere - Earth's ecosystems; Earth's surface and subsurface
- Ecology - Interactions between life, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and solid Earth
Earth's Internal Structure
- Crust: Oceanic (0-6 km) and Continental (0-34 km)
- Mantle: Upper (34-670 km) and Lower (670-2900 km)
- Core: Outer (liquid), Inner (solid)
Earth's Internal Structure - Crust
- Avg. rock density (continental crust) about 2.7 g/cm³
- Avg. thickness (continental crust) 35-40 km
- Avg. rock type (continental crust) Granite
- Oceanic crust
- Avg. rock density about 3.0 g/cm³
- Avg. thickness 7-10 km
- Avg. rock type = Basalt/Gabbro
Earth's Internal Structure - Continents
- Underlies continents
- Average rock density is 2.7g/cm³
- Average thickness is 35-40km
- Felsic composition
- Rock type is granite
Earth's Internal Structure - Oceanic crust
- Underlies ocean basins
- Average rock density is 3.0 g/cm³
- Average thickness is 7-10km
- Mafic composition
- Rock type is basalt/gabbro
Plate Tectonics
- Theory dealing with Earth's outer shell (lithosphere) dynamics
- Revolutionized Earth sciences by providing a uniform context for understanding mountain-building processes, volcanoes, earthquakes, and past configurations.
- Lithospheric separation and movement on asthenosphere forms base of plate tectonic theory.
- Types of Plate Boundaries
- Divergent (plates move apart)
- Convergent (plates collide)
- Transform (plates slide past)
Plate Tectonics (Divergent)
- Mid-ocean ridge, volcanic islands.
Plate Tectonics (Convergent)
- Deep ocean trenches, volcanic island arcs, and curved mountain lines. Occurs when one plate slides under another.
Plate Tectonics (Transform)
- Transform faults, plates slide past each other. Famous example is the San Andreas Fault.
Theories of Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
- Discussion of theories related to continental drift and plate tectonics.
Plate movements and Subduction
- Locations of various plates and their movements.
Earth's System Interconnections
- Interconnected systems that make up earth.
Atmosphere
- Blanket of gases surrounding Earth
- Protection from solar heat and UV rays
- Weather occurs b/w Earth's surface and atmosphere
Hydropshere
- Water portion of Earth
- Oceans (largest)
- Streams, lakes, glaciers, and underground water
Cryosphere
- Icy parts of Earth
- Glaciers, permafrost, polar ice caps
- Frozen polar seas
Biosphere
- Earth's Ecosystems
- Life occupies an extreme range of environments
Earth's Internal Structure
- Three distinct divisions
Physical Properties of Minerals
- Tenacity
- Hardness
- Fracture
- Streak
- Luster
- Density
Tenacity
- Describes a mineral's behavior under stress, like breaking, bending, or twisting.
- Types include brittle, flexible, elastic, malleable, and sectile
Hardness
- Defines resistance to scratching on a scale of 1-10.
- Mohs Hardness Scale used to determine hardness and helps with mineral identification.
Cleavage
- Planar structural weakness along which a mineral breaks smoothly.
- Parallel atomic planes.
Fracture
- Describes how a mineral breaks when it lacks cleavage.
- Types include Conchoidal, fibrous, splintery, hackly, and irregular.
Color
- Diagnostic property of some minerals(e.g., olivine and epidote).
Streak
- Color of a mineral's powder when scratched on a streak plate.
- Usually different from the mineral's color.
Luster
- General appearance of a mineral surface to reflected light.
- Types include metallic, vitreous, resinous, pearly, greasy, silky, and adamantine.
Structure (of minerals)
- Various shapes like kidney, fibrou, radial, and concentric
Specific Gravity
- Relative density used to identify minerals.
- Weight of a mineral divided by the weight of an equal volume of water.
Radioactivity
- Radioactivity in minerals comes from uranium and thorium
- Used to determine the geological age of minerals
Chemical Properties of Minerals
- Composition of minerals.
- Calcite with aragonite and with diamond properties
Optical Properties
- Light-related properties of minerals.
- Colors, fracture properties, single/double breaking properties, and shapes under a polarizing microscope.
Importance of Minerals for Civil Engineering
- Building materials: many minerals used in constructions; cement, gravel, sand, and water
- Engineering materials: various materials that have properties like strength, durability, and stability
Geological Time
- Time scales, May/September 1980
The Rock Cycle
- Processes that transform rocks from one type to another, starting with a pre-existing rock or magma.
- Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
- Processes include erosion, uplift, crystallization, melting, burial, compaction, cementation, Increased P & T, deformation.
Magmatic Rocks
- Formed by solidification of molten rock (magma or lava).
- Intrusive (cooled below surface), Extrusive (cooled above surface).
- Physical properties like texture and mineral composition varies depending on cooling time and environmental factors.
Classification of Igneous Rocks
- Based on texture (fine or coarse grained), and chemical/mineral composition (felsic, intermediate, mafic, ultramafic)
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
- Clastic rocks (formed from eroded materials): Examples are sandstone and shale
- Chemical rocks (formed from chemical precipitations): Examples are limestone and rock gypsum
- Organic rocks: Formed due to accumulation of organic matter such as coal.
Sedimentary Rock Properties for Engineering
- Resistance of sedimentary rocks varies depending on composition and other similar properties such as susceptibility.
Sedimentary Structures
- Bedding (layering), Different shapes depending on processes such as cross bedding, graded bedding
Importance of Sedimentary Rocks in Engineering
- Materials for constructions, engineering properties, environmental processes
Metamorphic Rocks
- Formed from pre-existing rocks under pressure/heat
- Important properties include strength, resistance, and texture
Types of Metamorphism
- Contact metamorphism (magma invades host rock)
- Regional metamorphism (mountain building or subduction)
- Burial metamorphism (thick piles of sediment rock)
- Hydrothermal metamorphism (chemical alteration by hot fluids)
- Shock metamorphism (high pressures or impact events)
Metamorphic Rock Properties in Engineering
- Resistance and properties like the texture, composition and the associated stresses
Metamorphic Rock Classification
- Based on texture (foliated, non-foliated) and composition.
- Foliated: Planar layering, often due to pressure
- Non-foliated: lacks layering, often due to chemical processes
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