Fundamentals of Computer Systems: Memory Technologies
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Questions and Answers

What is the function of the memory unit?

The function of the memory unit is to store programs and data.

What are the two classifications of storage?

  • Volatile and Non-Volatile Storage
  • Primary and Secondary Storage (correct)
  • Internal and External Storage
  • Cache and Virtual Memory

Which types of memory are considered primary storage? (Give two examples)

RAM and ROM.

RAM is a form of volatile memory.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many bits constitute one byte?

<p>8 bits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many bytes are in a kilobyte?

<p>1024 bytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many kilobytes are in a megabyte?

<p>1024 kilobytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many bits are in a nibble?

<p>4 bits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many bits are in a word?

<p>16 bits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is cache memory?

<p>Cache memory is a supplementary memory system that temporarily stores frequently used instructions and data for quicker processing by the CPU.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is virtual memory?

<p>Virtual memory is a common technique used in a computer's operating system (OS) that enables a computer to compensate for physical memory shortages by temporarily transferring data from RAM to disk storage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

SRAM is faster and less expensive than DRAM.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical size of SRAM in a desktop system?

<p>A few tens of megabytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe how the CPU accesses main memory.

<p>The CPU accesses main memory by placing an address on the memory bus, and then the main memory retrieves the data at that address and places it back on the bus. Finally, the CPU reads the data from the bus and copies it into a register.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the part of the CPU that performs arithmetic and logical operations?

<p>Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the I/O bridge?

<p>The I/O bridge helps connect the CPU and main memory to I/O devices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of disks?

<p>Disks store data and instructions, providing secondary storage for long-term data retention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many sides or surfaces does a platter have?

<p>Two sides or surfaces.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the rotating spindle?

<p>The rotating spindle spins the platter at a fixed rotational rate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does RPM stand for?

<p>Revolutions Per Minute.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical range of rotational speeds for disk drives?

<p>Between 5,400 and 15,000 revolutions per minute (RPM).</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are tracks?

<p>Tracks are concentric rings on a disk surface.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are sectors?

<p>Sectors are partitions of a track that contain a specific number of data bits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical size of a sector?

<p>512 bytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of gaps between sectors?

<p>Gaps between sectors store formatting bits that identify sectors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the read/write head?

<p>The read/write head reads and writes bits stored on the magnetic surface of a disk.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a seek?

<p>A seek is the mechanical movement of the read/write head over a disk surface.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the disk drive able to move the read/write head over any track on the surface?

<p>By moving the arm radially, the disk drive can position the read/write head over any track.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many read/write heads would a disk with multiple platters have?

<p>Each disk surface would have a separate read/write head.</p> Signup and view all the answers

All read/write heads in a multi-platter disk move in unison.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the formula to calculate disk capacity?

<p>The capacity of disk is calculated by multiplying the number of bytes per sector, average number of sectors per track, number of tracks per surface, number of surfaces per platter, and number of platters.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is disk capacity typically expressed?

<p>Disk capacity is usually expressed in units of gigabytes (GB) or terabytes (TB).</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the capacity of a disk with 3 platters, 15,000 cylinders, an average of 500 sectors per track, and 1,024 bytes per sector?

<p>The capacity of the disk would be 2,304,000,000,000 bytes or 2.304 TB.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the CPU write to the disk when initiating a disk read?

<p>The CPU writes a command, logical block number, and destination memory address to the memory-mapped address associated with the disk.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the disk controller notify the CPU that a DMA transfer is complete?

<p>The disk controller notifies the CPU by sending an interrupt signal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does an SSD package connect to the I/O bus?

<p>An SSD package plugs into a standard disk slot on the I/O bus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

SSDs behave like any other disk, processing requests from the CPU to read and write logical disk blocks.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two components of an SSD package?

<p>The two components of an SSD package are flash memory chips and a flash translation layer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the flash translation layer?

<p>The flash translation layer translates requests for logical blocks into accesses of the underlying physical device.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the basic unit of data storage in a flash memory?

<p>A page.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a block in flash memory?

<p>A block is a collection of pages in flash memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Data can be written to a page in flash memory before the entire block has been erased.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flash memory allows for unlimited writes to a page.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many approximate write cycles can a block handle before it wears out?

<p>A block can handle roughly 100,000 write cycles before it wears out.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Once a block is worn out, it can no longer store data.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are random writes slower in flash memory?

<p>Random writes are slower because writing to flash memory requires the whole block to be erased first before writing the new data.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a memory hierarchy?

<p>A memory hierarchy is a structured system of memory components with different speeds, costs, capacities, and access times, arranged to improve performance and make the most of available resources.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are the different levels of memory organized in a memory hierarchy?

<p>The different levels of memory are organized in a pyramid-like structure, with the fastest and most expensive memory at the top and the slowest and cheapest memory at the bottom.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of CPU registers?

<p>CPU registers hold words retrieved from cache memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the L1 cache?

<p>The L1 cache holds cache lines retrieved from the L2 cache.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of local secondary storage?

<p>Local secondary storage (local disks) holds disk blocks retrieved from local disks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of remote secondary storage?

<p>Remote secondary storage (distributed file systems or web servers) holds files retrieved from disks on remote network servers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common practice to learn more about storage technologies?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are some topics for further reading on memory and storage?

<p>Topics for further reading include: Characteristics of Random Access Memory (RAM), DRAM structure and operations, Core i7 Memory Module, Enhanced DRAMS, Hard Disk Dynamics, rotational latency, access time, and transfer time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What is the primary function of the memory unit?

Stores programs and data while they are being executed. Examples: RAM and ROM.

What is cache memory?

Temporary storage, used by the CPU to access frequently used instructions and data quickly.

What is virtual memory?

A technique that uses both hardware and software to simulate more memory than the computer physically has. It does this by temporarily storing data on the hard disk.

What is RAM (Random Access Memory)?

A type of main memory that is volatile, meaning data is lost when the power is turned off. It provides fast access to data.

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What is ROM (Read-Only Memory)?

A type of main memory that is non-volatile, meaning data remains even without power. It stores the basic instructions needed for the computer to start up.

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What is SRAM (Static RAM)?

A type of RAM that is faster and more expensive than DRAM. It is used in cache memories.

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What is DRAM (Dynamic RAM)?

A type of RAM that is slower and less expensive than SRAM. It is used as the primary memory and in graphics buffers.

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What is a seek operation in disk technology?

The mechanical motion of moving the read/write head of a hard disk to a desired track. This is a key factor in determining the speed of disk access.

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What are tracks on a hard disk?

A collection of concentric rings on a disk platter where data is stored.

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What are sectors on a hard disk?

Specific segments on each track of a hard disk that store a fixed amount of data (usually 512 bytes).

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What are read/write heads on a multi-platter hard disk?

A separate read/write head for each surface on a multi-platter hard disk. These heads operate together, moving in unison to access data on a specific cylinder.

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What is a cylinder on a hard disk?

A collection of tracks on different surfaces of a hard disk that are aligned vertically. It is a key unit for disk addressing.

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What is a USB (Universal Serial Bus)?

A popular standard for connecting a variety of peripheral devices to a computer, including keyboards, mice, printers, and external storage devices.

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What is a graphics card (adapter)?

A hardware component responsible for processing and displaying images on a computer monitor.

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What is a SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) host bus adapter?

A type of host bus adapter that connects disk drives to the I/O bus using the SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) protocol. It can support multiple drives.

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What is a SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) host bus adapter?

A type of host bus adapter that connects disk drives to the I/O bus using the SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) protocol. It typically only supports one drive.

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What is a Solid State Disk (SSD)?

A storage technology that uses flash memory instead of rotating disks. It offers faster access times and improved durability compared to traditional drives.

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What is a Flash Translation Layer (FTL) in an SSD?

A layer in an SSD that manages data access between the logical blocks and the physical flash memory components, improving efficiency and handling block wear and tear.

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What is a block in flash memory?

The basic unit of data storage in flash memory, consisting of multiple pages. Blocks can only be written to after being erased

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What is a page in flash memory?

A smaller unit of data storage within a block in flash memory. Data is accessed and written in units of pages.

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What is block erasing in flash memory?

The process of clearing all data from a block in flash memory before writing new data. This process is essential but can be time-consuming.

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How many times can a block be erased and rewritten?

An example of how a block in flash memory can be erased and rewritten multiple times. Typically, a block can handle about 100,000 writes before it wears out and needs to be replaced.

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What is disk access time?

The time it takes to access data on a disk. This includes the time for seeking, rotational latency, and data transfer.

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What is rotational latency in disk technology?

The time it takes for the desired sector on a disk to rotate under the read/write head. It depends on the disk's rotational speed.

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What is data transfer time in disk technology?

The time it takes to transfer data between the disk and the main memory. It depends on the disk's transfer rate.

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What is the memory hierarchy?

A hierarchical structure that arranges memory systems based on their speed, cost, and size. It includes cache, main memory, and secondary storage.

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How does the memory hierarchy work?

The concept of using multiple levels of memory to optimize performance and cost. The fastest and smallest memory level (cache) is used for frequently used data, while the slower and larger level (main memory) stores less frequently used data. Secondary storage (hard disk) holds the least frequently accessed data.

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What is swapping in virtual memory?

The process of transferring data from the main memory to the hard disk when there is insufficient physical memory available. This frees up space in the main memory for other processes.

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What is swapping back in virtual memory?

The process of transferring data from the hard disk back to the main memory when it is needed for execution. This happens when a program or data is requested that was previously swapped out.

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What is access time in memory/storage systems?

One of the key performance characteristics of a memory or storage system. It measures the time it takes to access a particular data item.

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Study Notes

Fundamental of Computer Systems - Memory Technologies

  • Memory Units: Store programs and data. Consist of two types: Primary storage (Main Memory) and Secondary storage.
  • Primary Storage (Main Memory): Stores programs while being executed. Examples are RAM and ROM. CPU accesses both RAM and ROM.
  • Secondary Storage: Stores large amounts of data, instructions, and information more permanently than main memory. Examples include hard disks, CDs, and flash memory.
  • Types of Memory:
    • Volatile: Data lost when power is off. Example: RAM.
    • Non-volatile: Data retained when power is off. Example: ROM.

Memory Units

  • Bit (bit): Smallest unit of data, either 0 or 1.
  • Byte (byte): A group of 8 bits.
  • Kilobyte (KB): 1024 bytes.
  • Megabyte (MB): 1024 kilobytes.
  • Nibble: A group of 4 bits.
  • Word: A group of 16 bits, or 2 bytes.

Cache and Virtual Memory

  • Cache Memory: A supplementary memory system. Temporarily stores frequently used instructions and data for quicker processing by the CPU.
  • Virtual Memory: A technique used in a computer's operating system (OS). Uses both hardware and software. Compensates for physical memory shortages by temporarily transferring data from RAM to disk storage.

Storage Technologies

  • Random Access Memory (RAM): Comes in two varieties (static and dynamic).

    • Static RAM (SRAM): Faster and more expensive than DRAM. Used for cache memories, both on and off the CPU chip.
    • Dynamic RAM (DRAM): Used for main memory and the frame buffer of a graphics system. Typically, desktop systems have hundreds/thousands of megabytes of DRAM.

  • Disk Storage:

    • Disks are made of platters with magnetic recording material.
    • A rotating spindle in the center spins the platter. Typical RPMs are between 5,400 and 15,000.
    • A disk contains one or more platters.
    • Tracks are concentric rings on the surface.
    • Sectors divide each track into sections, typically with 512 bytes. Gaps between sectors.
    • Disk Geometry: Tracks, sectors, surfaces, cylinders (multiple platters).
    • Disk Operation: Read/write heads are positioned over any track by moving radially.
    • Disk Capacity: Determined by # bytes/sector * avg # sectors/track * #tracks/surface * #surfaces/platter * #platters/disk

  • Connecting I/O Devices:

    • Input/Output (I/O) devices connect to the CPU and main memory via an I/O bus.
    • Universal Serial Bus (USB) controller connects various peripheral devices (e.g., keyboards, mice, printers, etc.) to a USB bus.
    • SCSI and SATA are popular interfaces for connecting disks to the I/O bus. SCSI is typically faster than SATA.
    • Each interface has specifics like max bandwidth, which is important for speed of operations.

  • Solid State Disk (SSD):

    • Storage technology based on flash memory. An alternative to traditional rotating disks.
    • Uses flash memory chips instead of a mechanical drive.
    • A flash translation layer translates requests for logical blocks into accesses of the underlying physical device.
    • Flash blocks consist of pages. Blocks are erased before rewrites. Block wears out after a set number of writes. Random writes are slower because of erasure times.

  • Memory Hierarchy

    • Multiple levels of storage in the system.
    • Faster, smaller levels closer to CPU and slower, larger ones for more capacity.

  • Data Access from Disk:

    • Instructions sent to initiate a read operation, specifying logical block and destination memory address.
    • Data transfers can use Direct Memory Access (DMA) for faster transfer between disk and memory.

  • CPU Initiates Disk Read: CPU sends a command, logical block number, and destination address to memory-mapped address on disk.

Additional Topics for Further Study

  • Characteristics of RAM
  • DRAM Structure and Operations
  • Core i7 Memory Module
  • Enhanced DRAMs
  • Hard Disk Dynamics
  • Rotational latency, access time, and transfer time in disk drives

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Fundamental of Computer Systems Memory Technologies 2024 PDF

Description

Explore the various memory technologies that form the backbone of computer systems. This quiz covers primary and secondary storage, types of memory, and important units like bits and bytes. Test your understanding of how memory works in computing.

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