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Questions and Answers
What is the maximum capacity of short-term memory according to the magical number principle?
What is the maximum capacity of short-term memory according to the magical number principle?
Selective attention requires cognitive effort to focus on relevant information.
Selective attention requires cognitive effort to focus on relevant information.
True
What are the two ideas of rationality mentioned?
What are the two ideas of rationality mentioned?
Absolute Olympic rationality and Bounded ecological rationality
The duration of long-term memory can be described as _______.
The duration of long-term memory can be described as _______.
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
Match the following terms with their definitions:
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Which of the following describes Bounded ecological rationality?
Which of the following describes Bounded ecological rationality?
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Long-term memory is organized by perceptual cues.
Long-term memory is organized by perceptual cues.
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What is the role of the central executive in Baddeley's model of working memory?
What is the role of the central executive in Baddeley's model of working memory?
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What is a necessary condition for intergroup contact to effectively reduce prejudice?
What is a necessary condition for intergroup contact to effectively reduce prejudice?
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Extended contact refers to using direct interactions between members of different groups.
Extended contact refers to using direct interactions between members of different groups.
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What does the contact hypothesis propose?
What does the contact hypothesis propose?
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The tendency of individuals to avoid intervening in dangerous situations when others are present is known as the __________ effect.
The tendency of individuals to avoid intervening in dangerous situations when others are present is known as the __________ effect.
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Which of the following factors contributes to social loafing?
Which of the following factors contributes to social loafing?
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Positive contact experiences always lead to a decrease in prejudice.
Positive contact experiences always lead to a decrease in prejudice.
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Name two major sources of social influence.
Name two major sources of social influence.
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Which of the following is not a step in addressing a problem as indicated in the findings?
Which of the following is not a step in addressing a problem as indicated in the findings?
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Formal social norms are always written laws.
Formal social norms are always written laws.
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What term is used to describe the influence of observing others' behavior as a guide for personal actions?
What term is used to describe the influence of observing others' behavior as a guide for personal actions?
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The _____ effect was used by Muzafer Sherif to study how social norms arise.
The _____ effect was used by Muzafer Sherif to study how social norms arise.
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Match the type of social norm with its description:
Match the type of social norm with its description:
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In Robinson's 2014 study, which type of norm was found to be more effective in food choice?
In Robinson's 2014 study, which type of norm was found to be more effective in food choice?
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Social norms are only effective when individuals are aware of them.
Social norms are only effective when individuals are aware of them.
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What was the primary method used by Sherif to demonstrate the formation of social norms?
What was the primary method used by Sherif to demonstrate the formation of social norms?
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What happens when group boundaries are impermeable and stable?
What happens when group boundaries are impermeable and stable?
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Stereotyping is always accurate and reflects the true qualities of a group.
Stereotyping is always accurate and reflects the true qualities of a group.
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Define prejudice in the context of social groups.
Define prejudice in the context of social groups.
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Social categorization can lead to ________, which is the process of evaluating members of a social group based on shared beliefs.
Social categorization can lead to ________, which is the process of evaluating members of a social group based on shared beliefs.
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Which of the following leads to the de-categorization of low-status groups into individual mobility?
Which of the following leads to the de-categorization of low-status groups into individual mobility?
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Discrimination can only take the form of overt acts such as harassment.
Discrimination can only take the form of overt acts such as harassment.
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What is the significance of social categorization in social identity formation?
What is the significance of social categorization in social identity formation?
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What is the primary focus of the fourth phase in the intergroup conflict resolution process?
What is the primary focus of the fourth phase in the intergroup conflict resolution process?
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Relative deprivation is primarily caused by the actual scarcity of resources.
Relative deprivation is primarily caused by the actual scarcity of resources.
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What effect does politicized identity have on collective action?
What effect does politicized identity have on collective action?
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Relative deprivation can be either _____ or _____, depending on whether it is viewed from an individual or group perspective.
Relative deprivation can be either _____ or _____, depending on whether it is viewed from an individual or group perspective.
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Match the concepts with their definitions:
Match the concepts with their definitions:
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What can increase or decrease the perception of unfair treatment among group members?
What can increase or decrease the perception of unfair treatment among group members?
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Groups can experience a reduction in conflict even if openness to confrontation has ended.
Groups can experience a reduction in conflict even if openness to confrontation has ended.
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What is one essential factor, besides unfairness, that can engage individuals in group action?
What is one essential factor, besides unfairness, that can engage individuals in group action?
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What influences the global impression derived from limited available elements of a person?
What influences the global impression derived from limited available elements of a person?
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The top-down model suggests that impressions are formed based on characteristics of the perceived target.
The top-down model suggests that impressions are formed based on characteristics of the perceived target.
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What model proposed by Asch focuses on central and peripheral traits in impression formation?
What model proposed by Asch focuses on central and peripheral traits in impression formation?
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According to the stereotype content model, common stereotypes are evaluated based on two main dimensions: intellectual good/bad and ________ good/bad.
According to the stereotype content model, common stereotypes are evaluated based on two main dimensions: intellectual good/bad and ________ good/bad.
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Match the characteristic with its corresponding category:
Match the characteristic with its corresponding category:
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Which trait is more quickly recognized in social judgments?
Which trait is more quickly recognized in social judgments?
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What is the primary evolutionary advantage discussed in relation to impression formation?
What is the primary evolutionary advantage discussed in relation to impression formation?
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Agency traits include characteristics such as sociability and caring.
Agency traits include characteristics such as sociability and caring.
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Study Notes
Fundamental Concepts
- Cognition is the mental process of understanding information.
- Attention is the conscious focus on specific things, which can be selective or automatic. Perception is not affected by attention.
- Selective attention requires effort to filter out irrelevant information. Salience attracts attention due to its vividness and distinctiveness.
- Short-term memory has a limited capacity (18-30 seconds) and is based on attention and is organized perceptually. Working memory involves sensory input (visual, auditory, etc.), processing, and storage in long-term memory.
- Short-term memory can hold about 7 ± 2 chunks of information.
- Long-term memory has a large, limitless capacity, and information is stored semantically via an associative network.
Basic Info Processing Principles
- Accessibility refers to the ease of retrieving concepts from long-term memory. Recency, frequency, and relevance influence accessibility.
- Conservatism means that once views and opinions are formed, they tend to persist. Cognitive resources are limited, so updates to knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes are infrequent.
Attitudes Formation and Change
- Attitudes are composed of cognitive (beliefs), affective (feelings), and behavioral (past experiences, future intentions) components, in relation to objects, people, or events.
- Attitude formation occurs through direct experience, observing others, or group discussions/media.
- Attitudes can be positive, negative, or ambivalent, with varying levels of strength (mild, moderate, extreme).
- Attitudes are relatively stable, but can change due to internal (deliberation, cognitive dissonance) or external (exposure to information, social influence) factors.
Social Cognition
- Individuals form impressions of others based on factors like physical appearance, observed behavior, and communication.
- Impression formation uses a bottom-up approach, analyzing characteristics of the perceived target, and a top-down approach, using pre-existing mental schemas.
- Stereotypes are socially shared beliefs about the characteristics of social groups (e.g., agentic (getting ahead) and communal (getting along) traits).
- Social identity is the part of one's self-concept that comes from social groups, which can be chosen or assigned.
- Social identity effects cognition, emotions, and behavior towards others.
Attribution
- Attribution is the process of explaining observed behaviors or events.
- Dispositional attributions focus on the internal characteristics of the actor; whereas situational attributions focus on the external factors influencing the behavior.
- Correspondence bias predisposes people to favor dispositional attributions over situational ones
- Other situational elements such as the consensus, distinctiveness, consistency of a person's action, also influence attributions.
- Attributional biases, such as the actor-observer effect and the self-serving bias, might distort our perception of others and ourselves.
Self and Identity
- Self-consciousness is the awareness of oneself as an object in the world.
- Self-discrepancy theory describes the discrepancies between the actual self, ideal self, and ought self, and resulting emotions.
- Social Identity Theory explores how our connections to social groups influence our self-concepts and behavior.
- Self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to successfully execute tasks.
- Self-esteem is one's evaluation of oneself, often influenced by self-comparisons and social comparisons.
Social Influence
- Social norms are rules and standards that guide behavior within a group.
- Descriptive norms describe the actual behaviors of others, and people frequently follow them.
- Injunctive norms describe the behaviors that are approved or disapproved by the group.
- Social norms in groups play an important function.
- Social influence occurs even when others are not physically present in the forms of descriptive norms and injunctive norms.
- Power is the ability to exert influence over others, which can stem from various sources including reward, threat, information, or authority.
Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation
- Intergroup conflict can arise from competition over resources or unequal distribution of resources, and can lead to social tensions, antagonism, and collective action.
- Cooperation often occurs when groups are united by a common interest or goal, like climate change mitigation.
- Changing social identities (via de-categorisation, superordinate identities, and dual identities) is beneficial for groups wanting to reduce social conflict.
Reconciliation
- Reconciliation, or reconciliation efforts, often face obstacles due to the conflicting needs of the involved parties.
- Forgiveness can be an effective reconciliation tool.
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Description
This quiz explores key concepts in cognitive psychology, focusing on cognition, attention, and memory processes. It covers the differences between short-term and long-term memory, as well as principles of information processing. Test your knowledge on how we understand and retain information.
