Fundamental Concepts of Chemistry

Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
- States: Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma.
Atoms: Basic units of matter; consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
- Atomic number: Number of protons.
- Mass number: Sum of protons and neutrons.

Periodic Table

Organized by increasing atomic number.
Groups: Vertical columns; elements with similar properties.
Periods: Horizontal rows; indicate energy levels of electrons.
Categories:
- Metals: Conductive, malleable, ductile.
- Nonmetals: Poor conductors, brittle.
- Metalloids: Properties of both metals and nonmetals.

Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons from one atom to another, forming charged ions.
Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons between atoms.
Metallic Bonds: Sea of electrons shared among a lattice of metal atoms.

Chemical Reactions

Reactants: Substances that undergo a change.
Products: Substances formed as a result of the reaction.
Types:
- Synthesis: A + B → AB
- Decomposition: AB → A + B
- Single Replacement: A + BC → AC + B
- Double Replacement: AB + CD → AD + CB
- Combustion: Hydrocarbon + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

Acids and Bases

Acids: Donate protons (H⁺) and have a pH < 7.
Bases: Accept protons and have a pH > 7.
pH Scale: Measures acidity or basicity, ranging from 0 to 14.

Stoichiometry

Relationship between reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
Balancing equations: Same number of each type of atom on both sides.
Mole concept: 1 mole = 6.022 x 10²³ particles.

Thermochemistry

Study of heat changes in chemical reactions.
Exothermic Reactions: Release heat.
Endothermic Reactions: Absorb heat.
Enthalpy (ΔH): Heat content of a system.

Kinetics and Equilibrium

Reaction Rate: Speed at which reactants convert to products.
- Affected by concentration, temperature, and catalysts.
Chemical Equilibrium: State where forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate.

Organic Chemistry

Study of carbon-containing compounds.
Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms that determine the characteristics of molecules (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxyl).
Isomers: Compounds with the same formula but different structures.

Inorganic Chemistry

Study of inorganic compounds, often focused on metals, minerals, and organometallics.
Coordination Compounds: Complexes formed between metal ions and ligands.

Analytical Chemistry

Techniques for analyzing substances.
Methods: Spectroscopy, chromatography, titration.

Biochemistry

Study of chemical processes in living organisms.
Key biomolecules: Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids.

Safety and Laboratory Practices

Use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
Proper handling and disposal of chemicals.
Understanding Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS).

Fundamental Concepts of Chemistry

Matter is defined as anything that possesses mass and takes up space.
The four states of matter include solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.
Atoms serve as the fundamental building blocks of matter and are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
The atomic number indicates the number of protons in an atom, while the mass number reflects the total of protons and neutrons.

Periodic Table

Elements in the periodic table are arranged based on increasing atomic number.
Groups are vertical columns where elements exhibit similar properties; this aids in predicting behavior.
Periods are horizontal rows representing the energy levels of electrons in an atom.
The periodic table categorizes elements into metals (good conductors, malleable, ductile), nonmetals (poor conductors, brittle), and metalloids (exhibit properties of both).

Chemical Bonds

Ionic bonds occur when electrons are transferred between atoms, resulting in the formation of charged ions.
Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between two atoms, leading to molecule formation.
Metallic bonds consist of a "sea of electrons" that are delocalized among metal atoms, contributing to conductivity.

Chemical Reactions

Reactants are the initial substances that undergo transformation in a chemical reaction, while products are the resulting substances post-reaction.
Major types of chemical reactions include:
- Synthesis: A + B → AB (combining elements)
- Decomposition: AB → A + B (breaking down compounds)
- Single Replacement: A + BC → AC + B (one element replaces another)
- Double Replacement: AB + CD → AD + CB (exchange of elements between compounds)
- Combustion: Hydrocarbon + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O (reaction with oxygen producing energy)

Acids and Bases

Acids are characterized by their ability to donate protons (H⁺) and typically have a pH less than 7.
Bases, conversely, accept protons and have a pH greater than 7.
The pH scale, ranging from 0 to 14, quantitatively measures the acidity or basicity of solutions.

Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry investigates the quantitative relationships between reactants and products in chemical reactions.
Equations must be balanced, ensuring an equal number of atoms of each element on either side.
The mole concept states that one mole is equivalent to 6.022 x 10²³ particles (Avogadro's number).

Thermochemistry

Thermochemistry focuses on the heat changes that accompany chemical reactions.
Exothermic reactions release heat, whereas endothermic reactions absorb heat.
Enthalpy (ΔH) refers to the total heat content within a chemical system during reactions.

Kinetics and Equilibrium

Reaction rate denotes the speed of conversion from reactants to products, influenced by factors such as concentration, temperature, and the presence of catalysts.
Chemical equilibrium is achieved when the forward and reverse reactions occur at equal rates, maintaining constant concentrations of reactants and products.

Organic Chemistry

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds and their structures.
Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that dictate their chemical behavior (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxyl).
Isomers are compounds that share the same molecular formula but differ in structural arrangement.

Inorganic Chemistry

Inorganic chemistry focuses on compounds that do not primarily involve carbon, including metals and minerals.
Coordination compounds form when metal ions bond with ligands, resulting in complex structures.

Analytical Chemistry

Analytical chemistry involves the techniques and methodologies for analyzing chemical substances.
Common methods include spectroscopy (measuring light absorption), chromatography (separating mixtures), and titration (quantifying concentrations).

Biochemistry

Biochemistry examines the chemical processes that occur within living organisms.
Key classes of biomolecules include proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, which are essential for biological functions.

Safety and Laboratory Practices

Emphasizes the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) to ensure safety in laboratory environments.
Proper handling and disposal of chemicals is crucial to prevent hazards.
Familiarity with Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) is essential for understanding chemical risks and safe usage.