Functional Groups and Macromolecules Quiz

Functional Groups

• Amine - NH₂
• Carboxylic acid - COOH
• Amide - CONH₂
• Hydroxyl - OH
• Aldehyde - CHO
• Ketone - CO-
• Ether - O-

Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates
  • Types: Mono-, di-, oligo-, polysaccharides
  • Monosaccharides examples: glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)
  • Disaccharides examples: sucrose
  • Oligosaccharides, 3-10 monosaccharides; raffinose
  • Polysaccharides examples: starch
  • Polymerization: monosaccharides connected by glycosidic bonds
  • Glycosidic bond types: alpha and beta
• Lipids
  • Fatty acids: Saturated (no double bonds), unsaturated (double bonds)
    • Cis: hydrogens on same side, trans: hydrogens on opposite sides
  • Types: Glycerides (neutral, phosphoglycerides), steroids, waxes, phospholipids
  • Bond: Ester bonds
  • Phospholipids: hydrophobic tail, hydrophilic head (phosphate and fatty acid)
• Proteins
  • Monomeric unit: amino acids (20)
  • Polymerization: amino acids connected by peptide bonds (dehydration)
  • N-terminus: beginning; C-terminus: end
• Nucleic acids
  • Monomeric unit: nucleotides
    • Nucleotides composed of phosphate, sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA), and base
    • Purine bases (double rings): adenine (A), guanine (G)
    • Pyrimidine bases (single rings): cytosine (C), thymine (T), uracil (U)
  • Bond: Phosphodiester bonds
  • 5' end: phosphate group; 3' end: hydroxyl group
  • Types: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Genetics Lab Exam

• Gel electrophoresis: separates molecules (DNA, RNA, proteins) by size and charge using an electric field through a gel matrix (agarose or polyacrylamide).
• DNA/RNA detection: use methods like staining with dyes like ethidium bromide (EtBr), SYBR Safe, or GelRed, for visualization under UV or blue light.
• Plasmid isolation: process to isolate plasmids (extrachromosomal DNA) from bacterial cells, often using alkaline lysis for breaking open the cells.
• PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): method for exponentially amplifying a specific DNA sequence, requiring specific primers, dNTPs, DNA polymerase, and a thermal cycler.
• DNA extraction: process of isolating DNA from a sample via various methods.

Bacterial Transformation

• Horizontal gene transfer: transfer of genetic material between organisms not through parent-offspring transmission.
  • Methods include: Transformation (uptake of free DNA), Transduction (DNA transfer via a vector), Conjugation (direct transfer via a pilus).
• Transformation: the uptake of free DNA by a competent bacterial cell.

Bacterial Transformation (continued)

• Competent bacteria: cells capable of taking up extracellular DNA. A common technique to make bacteria competent is treatment with calcium chloride (CaCl₂).

• Electroporation: uses brief electric pulses to create temporary pores in bacterial cell membranes, allowing DNA to enter.

  • Heat shock: a different method to temporarily permeabilize the bacterial cell membrane, enabling the uptake of DNA

• Selection vs. screening: Selection requires a successful transformation event to grow, whereas screening identifies transformed cells via a phenotypic marker.

• Plasmid isolation: process of isolation plasmids (extrachromosomal DNA).

Spectrophotometry Analysis

• Wavelengths emphasize during the experiment: 260, 280, 230 nm.
• Nucleic acids absorbance: 260 nm
• Proteins absorbance: 280 nm
• Desirable Ratio: 260/280 (1.8 for DNA, 2.0 for RNA)
• DNA and 230 desirable ratio= 2.0-2.2

Restriction Digestion

• Restriction enzymes/endonucleases: enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences (recognition sites)
• Palindromes: sequences that read the same forward on one strand and backward on the other strand

Population Genetics

• Genotype frequency: proportion of individuals with a specific genotype in a population
• Allele frequency: proportion of a specific allele in a population.
• Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: theoretical model describing allele and genotype frequencies in a non-evolving population.

Mendelian Genetics

• Monohybrid cross: involves one trait and 3:1 phenotype ratio
• Dihybrid cross: involves two traits and 9:3:3:1 phenotype ratio
• Homozygotes: having two identical alleles for a gene.
• Heterozygotes: having two different alleles for a gene
• Dominant allele: allele that expresses its phenotype even in the presence of a recessive allele for a trait.
• Recessive allele: allele that only expresses its phenotype in the absence of a dominant allele for a trait.

Test your knowledge of functional groups and macromolecules, including carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. This quiz covers essential structures, types, and bonding characteristics crucial to understanding biochemistry. See how well you recognize these foundational concepts.