Functional Assessment & Analysis

• Functional assessment refers to a three-pronged approach to determine the cause

Functional Analysis

• Systematic manipulation of environmental events tests their role as antecedents or consequences in controlling or maintaining specific problem behavior
• There is direct assessment of controlling variables
• Problem behavior functions can differ across individuals, even if the behavior looks similar
• Treatments should be based on the function of a behavior, not its form
• Limitations include low frequency of behavior, time to gather sufficient data, inapplicability to dangerous behavior, and costs of expenses and personnel

Questionnaire Assessment

• This is done via interviewing the client or their family
• This is an indirect assessment method
• Useful for determining if the problem behavior of individuals with developmental disabilities stems from attention-seeking or escaping aversive conditions
• Questionnaires do not always show good reliability but are rapid and consistent
• Information from questionnaires can be used as a basis for follow-up and can help rule out causes by arguing between details

Observational Assessment

• Carefully observe and describe the antecedents and consequences of behavior as it occurs in a natural setting
• This is an indirect assessment
• Generate a hypothesis, design a treatment, and if treatment is successful, confirm the hypothesis

Hypothesis Testing Approach

• Collect data
• Form a hypothesis
• Experimentally test the hypothesis
• Implement an intervention
• Evaluate the effects of the intervention like tantrums, and pestering

Problem Behavior Maintained by Attention

• Attention reliably follows the behavior
• The individual looks for or approaches a caregiver before engaging in behavior
• The individual smiles just before engaging in behavior
• Potential treatment involves implementing social reinforcement techniques
• DRO: Give attention only if the individual does not engage in the problem behavior over some interval
• DRI: Give attention if the individual is engaging in an incompatible alternative behavior

Problem Behavior Maintained by Self-Stimulation

• Behaviors are reinforced by sensory stimulation from our own bodies
• Extreme self-stimulation examples include body rocking, hand-flipping, and gazing at lights
• Reinforcers are sensory or perceptual
• Behaviors continue at a steady rate even if there are no apparent external consequences
• Enrich the child's environment to reduce deprivation of sensory stimulation
• Extinction is employed of the behavior by altering the sensory consequence the behavior produces

Problem Behavior Maintained by External Environmental Consequence

• Behaviors are maintained by reinforcing sights and sounds from the nonsocial physical environment
• Throwing toys (sounds produced) and flushing objects down the toilet (sight produced)
• Behaviors continue even if they produce no apparent social consequences over numerous occasions
• Treatment involves sensory reinforcement from an desirable alternative behavior
• For example, the child can take jewelry and put it in a jar of water in the kitchen (tinkling sound) and have positive reinforcement from the mother (praise)

Problem Behavior Maintained by Escape From Demands

• If requests from others are aversive, the problem behavior may be a way to escape demands placed on an individual by others
• Tantrums can lead a parent to withdraw a request
• Individuals engage in the behavior only when demands are made
• Persist with requests until compliance occurs
• With nonvocal people, teach them a way to communicate that the task is aversive
• Start with an easy request and gradually increase the level of difficulty of the required behavior

Elicited Problem Behaviors

• Behaviors are elicited by an antecedent stimulus and not controlled by consequence
• Aggression is elicited by an aversive stimulus or by withholding a reinforcer for a previously reinforced behavior
• Indicators consistently occur in the presence of certain stimuli and are never followed by any identifiable reinforcing consequence
• Treatment involves establishing a response to the CS that competes with the problem behavior (fear) when it occurs and precludes the problem behavior

Problem Behavior Arising from a Medical Cause

• Problem behavior may arise due to a medical cause like banging the head to reduce the sensation from a middle ear infection
• Problems arise suddenly and seem unrelated to any changes in the individual's environment
• Behavioral diagnostics include a broader assessment that also includes investigating medical and nutritional factors

Importance of Accurate Behavior

• Accurate recording of target behavior is essential for behavior modification
• Data-driven decisions enhance treatment effectiveness over subjective impressions

Phases of Behavior Modification Program

• Screening/intake: Initial assessment to determine the best services and gather client information
• Define the target behavior
• Baseline assessment: Determine the starting point for behavior to evaluate changes post-treatment
• Treatment phase: Implement a behavior modification program while continuously measuring target behavior
• Follow-up phase: Evaluate the persistence of behavior changes after treatments end
• Obtrusive observation involves the participant being aware of the researcher
• Unobtrusive observation involves the participant being unaware with a one-way mirror or hidden camera

Assessment Methods

• Indirect: Involves interview, questionnaire, and self-monitoring
• Direct: A trained observer record’s behaviors in real-time, providing accurate data
• Experimental Assessment: Manipulating variables to observe effects on target behavior
• Topography refers to the physical form of a behavior
• Rate/Frequency refers to the number of occurrences of a behavior within a specific timeframe
• Duration refers to the total time a behavior occurs
• Intensity refers to the force of energy used for the behavior and an example is traffic light and braking
• Stimulus control is the relationship between environmental events and behavior response
• Latency is the time delay between a stimulus and its response
• Quality is the subjective assessment of behavior performance
• Continuous recording involves documenting every instance of behavior during a specified time
• Interval recording involves observing whether behavior occurs during a set interval
• Time sampling involves recording behavior at specific moments
• Reactivity is when the participant changes their behavior when they know they are being observed
• Observer drift is the gradual change in how observers define and record behavior over time

Rules

• A rule is a verbal or written statement that outlines the conditions for reinforcement, specifying the antecedent, consequences, and behaviors
• Contingency-shaped behavior is influenced by immediate consequences, leading to gradual behavior change through trial and error
• Rule-governed behavior is controlled by verbal rules, often involving delayed consequences, which can lead to an indirect effect on behavior
• Rules can facilitate rapid behavior change, especially when immediate reinforcement is not available
• They are beneficial in situations with delayed consequences, increasing the likelihood of compliance on long-term goals
• Rules can bridge the gap for delayed consequence by providing immediate reinforcement through social feedback
• Individuals may self-reinforce or self-punish based on their obedience to rules, and anxiety can push individuals to follow the rules

Goals

• Goals represent desired performance levels and serve as a form of rule to guide behavior over time

• Goals differ from rules in that they focus on broader outcomes rather than immediate behavior

• Specific goals are more effective than vague ones

• Mastery criteria should be included to indicate when a skill is considered mastered, enhancing teaching outcomes

• Realistic and challenging goals are more motivating than "do your best" goals, which can lead to complacency

• A direct acting consequence is immediately reinforced when following a rule

• Failing to follow a rule is immediately punished

• An ineffective rule vaguely describes behavior, making it less likely to be followed

• An effective rule is more likely to be followed when the consequences are highly probable than when they are of low probability

• Discriminative stimulus signals the availability of reinforcement or punishment

• For example, if a rat pulls a lever, a green light (SD) comes on, and they get food, referring to the relationship between behavior and its consequence

• Contingency shaped behavior is learned through reinforcement or punishment in a more direct, experimental way

• Public goals are more effective than private goals, as shown in an experiment where public goal setting performed better Motivation is often viewed as an internal drive that influences behavior, leading to a circular reasoning behavior used to infer motivation

• The dictionary definition of "motive" is an internal drive that causes a person to act a certain way, which can lead to misunderstanding about the nature of the concept

• Circularity can create a false narrative about why individuals behave in certain ways, such as working hard because of high motivation, without considering external factors

• Practical limitations arise when people blame themselves or others for failing, because they may overlook outside factors actually affecting performance

• This internal focus can lead to self-blame for failures, such as labeling oneself as 'lazy' instead of exploring self-management strategies

Behavioral View of Motivation

• The behavioral perspective defines motivation through motivating operations (MOs), which manipulate antecedent environmental factors to alter behavior and consequence effectiveness
• MOs temporarily change what you want and tell you how to get it
• Two types of MOs: Motivating establishing operations (MEOs), increases reinforcers effectiveness (ex: food deprivation) and motivating abolishing operations (MAOs) decrease effectiveness of reinforcers
• MEOs enhance the frequency of behaviors that lead to reinforcers, while MAOs decrease such behaviors, impacting how individuals react to reward/punishment
• For example, the MEO in punishment is using a time-out, effectively combined with a point system, which increases the value of avoiding a time-out
• Unconditioned MOs (UMOs) are innate biological conditions that motivates behavior for survival, such as hunger or thirst, while conditioned MOs are due to prior learning
• Understanding the distinction between MOs and other discriminative stimuli is crucial for applying behavior modification techniques

Types of Motivating Operations

• UMOs are biological conditions that create a value-altering effect, such as deprivation of food or water, which motivates behavior necessary for survival like full bladder and the need to seek a toilet
• Satiation (UMOAs) decreases the effectiveness for reinforcers, like feeling full after eating, which reduces motivation to eat food
• Substance use such as cocaine as UMEOs illustrates how certain stimuli can reinforce effectiveness of reinforcers like sex which increases biological need for survival

Conditioned Motivating Operations (CMO)

• CMO alters the effectiveness of reinforcers based on prior learning experiences, impacting motivation in a specific context

• Repetitive tasks can lead to a decrease in the effectiveness of reinforcers, creating a Conditioned Motivating Abolishing Operation (CMAO) that reduces motivation to engage in those tasks

• CMEO can be illustrated as a point system for chores, where the rule itself motivates behavior to earn points, unlike a discriminative stimulus that merely indicates how to obtain the desired outcome

• CMO motivates that increases the value of condition behavior-reinforcer and likelihood of engaging in the behavior that leads to it, while discriminative stimuli dictates how to obtain what one already desires

• CMOs can change what individuals want, while a discriminative stimulus simply cues behavior that have been previously reinforced

• CMAOs are motivators that decrease the value of a conditioned reinforcer and the likelihood of engaging in previously reinforced behaviors, while discriminative stimuli indicate that a behavior will not lead to reinforcement

• CMAOs that decreases in motivation for behavior highlights the need for adaptive strategies in behavior modification

• Mo is a motivation that temporarily alters the effectiveness of reinforcers

• MEO temporarily increases the effectiveness of a reinforcer or punishment

• The UMED for a state of a person who hasn't eaten in 12 hours and food deprivation is unlearned and biological, which increases the value of food as a reinforcer and increases behavior

• UMEO is when a person touching a hot stove is naturally punished, increasing the behavior of pulling hand away from the stove

• CMEO is when a student sees a "due date", it reinforces them to finish their assignment and submit it, which was learned through school, and increases behavior

• The problem of self-control has commonly been perceived as a lack of willpower, which is a pseudo-explanation fails to provide actionable solution for improvement

• Self-control issues can be categorized into two types: behavioral excess and behavioral deficiencies, each requiring different strategies for modifications

• Behavioral excesses involves decreasing behavior that provides immediate relief, such as smoking or excessive TV watching, which can lead to long-term negative consequences

• Behavioral deficiencies involve increasing behaviors that may have unpleasant consequences, but lead to positive long-term outcomes

• Behavioral Excesses feature immediate gratification versus long-term consequences

• Immediate reinforcers often overshadow delayed punishers, leading to choices that lead to short-term pleasure over long-term health

• An example is a lying about homework for social activities, which results in immediate social satisfaction, but there are potential academic penalties later on

• The choice between immediate and delayed reinforcers influenced by the timing of decisions, with impulsive choice having a winning outcome

Equation of Self-Control

• Helps quantify the decision making process regarding self-control

• D represents duration in which the value of the smaller immediate reinforcer exceeds that of the larger delayed reinforcer, termed the danger zone

• Longer D indicates a greater likelihood of impulsive choices, while a shorter D suggests better self-control

• The triangle denotes the time difference between the delivery of the larger reinforcer and the smaller immediate reinforcer

• A larger triangle increases D, making self-control more challenging

• A is the ratio of the amount of the larger delayed reinforce divided by the smaller immediate reinforcer, and a higher A reduces D, promoting better self-control

• C represents the rate of temporal discounting, indicating how quickly the value of a reinforcer diminishes over time, and a larger C leads to a higher rate of discounting

• Understanding behavioral deficiencies refer to responses that need to be increased, such as exercising or flossing, which often have immediate small punishers associated with them

• These behaviors may not provide noticeable immediate benefits, making it difficult to maintain motivation for their practice

• Strategies for increasing these behaviors may include setting small, achievable goals, and tracking progress to highlight benefits over time

• Long-term benefits of overcoming behavioral deficiencies mean flossing can feel unpleasant but leads to good overall oral health

• Types of punishment are immediate mild punishment versus highly improbable major punishment

• An example of wearing a safety helmet while biking leads to immediate discomfort (mild punisher) but prevents severe consequences like brain damage as a major punisher

• Temporal discounting is when people prefer smaller immediate rewards rather than larger delayed rewards

• Tokens serve as conditioned reinforcers

• Advantages include immediate reinforcers because generalized conditioned reinforcers and the token can be paired with multiple backup reinforcers, increasing their effect as motivators

Steps in Setting Up Token Economies

• Define the target behaviors
• Establish a baseline and select tokens and backup reinforcers
• Only one person should be responsible for delivering tokens, and should be given in a positive manner with regular feedback
• Token exchanges should start high, then decrease as the participants adjust
• Common issues involve confusion during initial implementation, and strategies to mitigate these problems includes proper communication
• Gradually eliminate tokens by making them more intermitted
• Increase the delay between the behavior and tokens to adjust them to the natural environment
• The goal of a token economy is to help clients transition to social reinforcement in their natural environment
• Back up reinforcers: Object or activities that can be delivered in exchange for tokens
• Token used as punishers for inappropriate behaviors
• Discriminative stimulus is a stimulus in the presence of which an operant response will be reinforced
• This is voluntary behavior that is influenced by its consequences
• Extinction stimulus is in the presence of which an operant respondent is not reinforced
• Operant stimulus generalization refers to the procedure of reinforcing a response in the presence of an SP and extinguishing that response in the presence of SA
• Operant Stimulus Generalization refers to the procedure of reinforcing a response in the presence of a stimulus or situation and the effect of the response becoming more probable not only in the presence of that stimulus, but also in the presence of different stimuli Multiple designs are used in a base line
• Multiple baseline Designs happen if are unethical to return to baseline to reverse an improvement in behavior, and then use a multiple baseline design to demonstrate effectiveness of a treatment without reversing to baseline conditions
• Multiple baseline across behavior involves establishing baselines for two or more of an individual's behavior, followed by introducing the treatment sequentially across those behaviors
• Multiple baseline across people involves establishing baselines for specific behavior across 2 or more people concurrently, followed by introduction of treatment sequentially to each person

Three Reasons Why Reinforcement ≠ Reward

• Reinforcement is a more general concept
• Reinforcement is defined by its effect on behavior
• Reinforcement refers to a relationship between a behavior and a consequence
• Positive punishement, negative punishment, positive and negative reinforcement
• Law of effect: If behavior does not increase in frequency of occurrence, then the consequence is not a reinforcement
• Behavior increase and Behavior decreases
• Contingent: A reinforcer only occurs if the behavior occurs
• Non-contingent reinforcer occurs independently of any particular behavior
• Unconditioned reinforcers are consequences that function as reinforcers without prior learning and are important for survival
• Conditioned reinforcers are consequences that have the capacity to function as reinforcers through learning like praise, attention, and money Modeling is a procedure that demonstrate sample behavior to encouragesimilar behavior in others

Types of Modeling Effects

• Observational learning: watch someone else perform it
• Inhibitory effect: when observing a model being punished decreases the likelihood of the observers performing that behavior
• Disinhibitory effect: when observing a model increases the likelihood of the observers performing that behavior
• Response facilitation: when a model is being served as a discriminative Stimulus for the observer's similar response