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Questions and Answers
What type of fracture is characterized by numerous fibers on a transversely broken surface?
What type of fracture is characterized by numerous fibers on a transversely broken surface?
Heart wood is the functioning part of a dicot stem or root.
Heart wood is the functioning part of a dicot stem or root.
False
Name one example of a plant that has a fibrous fracture type in its bark.
Name one example of a plant that has a fibrous fracture type in its bark.
Cinchona
The outermost region of wood that conducts food and water is called __________.
The outermost region of wood that conducts food and water is called __________.
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Match the following types of fractures with their descriptions:
Match the following types of fractures with their descriptions:
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Which of the following barks does not exhibit a smooth fracture?
Which of the following barks does not exhibit a smooth fracture?
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Wrinkles and fissures in bark are mainly caused by a lack of elasticity in the tree.
Wrinkles and fissures in bark are mainly caused by a lack of elasticity in the tree.
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What is the main component of heart wood that contributes to its dark color?
What is the main component of heart wood that contributes to its dark color?
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Which of the following is a source of natural resins?
Which of the following is a source of natural resins?
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Plant resins are soluble in water.
Plant resins are soluble in water.
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What is a key characteristic of oleo-resins?
What is a key characteristic of oleo-resins?
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___ is produced from the endodermis of fenugreek.
___ is produced from the endodermis of fenugreek.
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of natural resins?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of natural resins?
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Match the following plant resin types with their characteristics:
Match the following plant resin types with their characteristics:
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Name two examples of plant resins.
Name two examples of plant resins.
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Balsams of Copaiba contain balsamic acid.
Balsams of Copaiba contain balsamic acid.
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Which of the following statements best describes a sucker?
Which of the following statements best describes a sucker?
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Offsets originate from the axil of the leaves and are typically rosette-shaped.
Offsets originate from the axil of the leaves and are typically rosette-shaped.
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Name two examples of plants that utilize suckers.
Name two examples of plants that utilize suckers.
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The percentage of medicinal plants derived from leaves is ______.
The percentage of medicinal plants derived from leaves is ______.
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Match the following plant modifications with their descriptions:
Match the following plant modifications with their descriptions:
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Which of the following is not considered an organized crude drug?
Which of the following is not considered an organized crude drug?
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Branches that arise from pericyclic tissues are characteristic of roots.
Branches that arise from pericyclic tissues are characteristic of roots.
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What is the primary characteristic of organized crude drugs?
What is the primary characteristic of organized crude drugs?
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Which part of the plant is commonly associated with external gland resins?
Which part of the plant is commonly associated with external gland resins?
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Resins can only be found in plants and not in animals.
Resins can only be found in plants and not in animals.
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Name one example of a plant from which resins are obtained in the heartwood.
Name one example of a plant from which resins are obtained in the heartwood.
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The sap collected from incisions in fleshy leaves or stems is known as ______.
The sap collected from incisions in fleshy leaves or stems is known as ______.
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Match the following resin types with their descriptions:
Match the following resin types with their descriptions:
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What percentage of the plant coverage is made up by trees?
What percentage of the plant coverage is made up by trees?
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Multicellular resins are typically found in ginger.
Multicellular resins are typically found in ginger.
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What is a common commercial latex example?
What is a common commercial latex example?
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Which of the following is an example of a pseudocarp?
Which of the following is an example of a pseudocarp?
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Endospermic seeds fully absorb their endosperm during development.
Endospermic seeds fully absorb their endosperm during development.
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What is a fertilized ovule called?
What is a fertilized ovule called?
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The _______ is the minute opening of the tubular structure that provides water for seed germination.
The _______ is the minute opening of the tubular structure that provides water for seed germination.
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Match the following seed classifications with their descriptions:
Match the following seed classifications with their descriptions:
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Which fruit only contains the epicarp?
Which fruit only contains the epicarp?
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The hilum connects the seed to the fruit stalk.
The hilum connects the seed to the fruit stalk.
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What is the primary function of the seed coat?
What is the primary function of the seed coat?
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_________ is a storage tissue that can be present in certain seeds.
_________ is a storage tissue that can be present in certain seeds.
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Which of these plant parts can result in the formation of barks?
Which of these plant parts can result in the formation of barks?
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Barks exhibit only morphological characteristics.
Barks exhibit only morphological characteristics.
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What is the term for the outgrowth that covers the seed and originates from the micropyle?
What is the term for the outgrowth that covers the seed and originates from the micropyle?
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Barks may have different shapes depending on the method of __________.
Barks may have different shapes depending on the method of __________.
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Match the following seed structures with their characteristics:
Match the following seed structures with their characteristics:
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Study Notes
Category of Fruits
- False fruits or pseudocarps are formed from other floral parts, not just the ovary. These parts include the thalamus, receptacle, and calyx.
-
Examples of pseudocarps:
- Strawberry (formed from the thalamus)
- Cashew nut (formed from the peduncle and thalamus)
- Apple (formed from the thalamus)
- Marking nut (formed from the peduncle)
- Rose (formed from the thalamus)
Pharmaceutical Fruits
- Pharmaceutical fruits may or may not contain all three layers: epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp.
-
Examples:
- Lemon and orange (only epicarp is used)
- Tamarind and bael (only mesocarp is used)
- Fennel and Dill (all three layers are used)
Seeds
- A seed is a fertilized ovule that represents a condensed life form in phanerogamous plants (plants that produce seeds).
- The nucleus of the seed contains the embryo sac, which is surrounded by integuments.
- Fertilization takes place within the embryo sac.
Characterization of Seeds
- Seeds are characterized by the presence of the embryo, endosperm (may or may not be present), and seed coat.
Classification of Seeds
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Endospermic/Albuminous seeds: A portion of the endosperm remains until germination and is absorbed by the embryo. The endosperm is distinctly present.
- Examples: Colchicum, Isapgol, Linseed, Nux Vomica, Strophan thus
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Non-Endospermic/Exalbuminous seeds: During seed development, the endosperm is fully absorbed by the embryo and is not represented in the mature seed.
- Examples: Sunflower, Tamarind, Cotton, Soybean
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Perispermic seeds: The nucleus develops into a large storage tissue called the perisperm. These seeds contain an embryo, endosperm, perisperm, and seed coat.
- Examples: Pepper, Cardamom, Nutmeg
Seed Structures
- Hilum: The scar where the seed was attached to the stalk.
- Micropyle: A minute opening in the seed coat that provides water for germination.
- Raphe: A longitudinal marking resulting from the attachment of the stalk to the anatropous ovule.
Special Structures of Seeds
- Aril: A succulent growth from the hilum that covers the entire seed (e.g., nutmeg).
- Arillode: An outgrowth originating from the micropyle that covers the seed (e.g., cardamom).
- Arista (awn): A stiff bristle-like appendage on the glumes of grasses (e.g., Strophanthus).
- Caruncle: A warty outgrowth from the micropyle (e.g., cotton, croton viola).
- Strophiole: An enlarged funicle (e.g., Datura fastuosa and colchicum seeds).
- Hairs: Found in Gossypium and Calotropis.
Barks
- Barks are the secondary external tissues of stems and roots of dicotyledonous plants.
- They lie outside the epidermis and are also known as periderm, which is comprised of three layers:
- Cork (Phellem)
- Cork cambium (Phelloge)
- Secondary cortex (Phelloderm)
Characteristics of Barks
- Barks possess several microscopical and morphological characters that aid in their identification.
- Morphological characters are dependent on preparation methods, the type of incision made, and the extent of shrinkage of tissues.
Shapes in Barks
-
Shape of a bark is dependent on the source of the bark, the method of preparation, and the extent of shrinkage.
- Flat: Arjunia, Quillaia (from large trees dried under pressure)
- Curve shape: Wild cherry, Cassia (from small branches with shrinkage of soft tissues)
- Recurved: Kurchi (from small branches with shrinkage of soft tissues)
- Channeled: Cinchona ledgeriana, Cassia (deep channels formed by significant shrinkage)
- Quill: One side of the bark covers the other to form a quill (e.g., Java cinnamon)
- Double quill: Both edges of the bark roll independently to form a quill (e.g., Cinnamon)
- Compound: Multiple quills forming (e.g., Cinnamon)
Fractures in Barks
- The fracture of a bark refers to the appearance of transversely broken surfaces on the bark.
-
Types of fractures:
- Short: Smooth, even surface (e.g., Cinnamon, Kurchi)
- Granular: Small, rounded appearance (e.g., Wild cherry, Cassia)
- Splintery: Broken surfaces with uneven, projecting points (e.g., Cinnamon)
- Fibrous: Numerous fibers exposed on the broken surface (e.g., Cinchona)
- Laminated: Layer-like arrangement (e.g., Quillaia)
Additional Diagnosis of Barks
- Outer and inner surface characteristics can be used to further diagnose barks.
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Outer surface:
- Cracks and fissures: Due to a lack of elasticity and increased girth of the tree
- Wrinkles: Shrinkage of inner soft tissues
- Furrows: Troughs between wrinkles
- Lichens and mosses: Growth on the surface
- Lenticles: Small pores in the bark
- Development of cracks: Signs of injury or age
-
Inner surface:
- Striations: Longitudinal and parallel lines
- Transverse wrinkles: Corrugations
Wood
- Wood is the tissue produced by the cambium (inner side) of dicotyledonous plants.
- Composition: Mainly xylem with a small amount of other tissues.
- Characteristics: Lignified tissues
-
Types of wood:
- Heartwood: Non-functional, non-living, darker colored, inner region of dicot stems or roots, provides mechanical support (e.g., Sandalwood)
- Sapwood/Alburnum: Functional, lighter colored, outer region of wood, conducts food and water (e.g., Pennyworth)
Underground and Subaerial Modification of Stems
- Stolon: Lateral branches arising from the base of stems, characterized by nodes and internodes, grow above ground and develop into new plants (e.g., Glycyrrhiza, Jasmine, Arrow root)
- Offset: Originate from the axil of leaves, short thick horizontal branches (e.g., Aloe, Valerian, Agave)
- Sucker: Lateral branches developed from underground stems, grow obliquely upward, and give rise to new plants (e.g., Banana, Mentha, Pineapple)
Roots
-
Characteristics:
- Downward growth in soil
- Branching roots arise from pericyclic tissues
- Covered by root caps or root heads
- No clear distinction between roots and rhizomes (both have a large proportion of each)
Utilization of Medicinal Plants by Parts
-
Plant part | Percentage
- Roots | 29%
- Whole Plant | 16%
- Barks | 14%
- Fruits | 10%
- Seeds | 7%
- Leaves | 6%
- Stems | 6%
- Flowers | 5%
- Rhizomes | 4%
- Wood | 3%
Entire Organism as a Drug
- Refers to the major proportion of a plant being used as a drug.
- Herbs (all aerial parts): Leaves, flowers, seeds, smaller stems (e.g., Belladonna, Cannabis, Datura, Lobelia)
-
Entire organisms:
- Ergot: Dried sclerotium of fungus
- Ephedra: Stem portion of the plant
Organized and Unorganized Crude Drugs
- Organized (cellular) crude drugs: Dried parts of plants or animals with cellular structures (e.g., leaves, stems, flowers)
- Unorganized (acellular) crude drugs: Parts of plants or animals obtained by extraction processes (e.g., oils, juices, lotions)
Differences between Organized and Unorganized Crude Drugs
| Organized crude drug | Unorganized crude drug |
|---|---|
| Organs of plants and animals | Examples: mucilage's from different plant parts |
| Normal products of plant metabolism (produced inside the cell) | Mucilage's from the cell wall of: |
| Forms slimy masses but do not dissolve | - Seed epidermis - Isabgol, linseed |
| Esters of sulfuric acids with a polysaccharide complex | - Endodermis - Fenugreek |
| - Leaf epidermis - Senna | |
| - Bark - Cinnamon, Slipper-elm | |
| - Special secretion cells - Squill | |
| - Algae - Agar, chondrus |
Resins and Resin Combinations
-
Types of Resins:
- Synthetic resins
-
Natural resins: Obtained from plant and animal sources.
- Animal source: Shellac/Lac
-
Plant resins: Natural or induced exudates, solid, liquid, or semi-viscous materials.
- Characteristics: End products of plant metabolism, clear, translucent, yellow or brown, soluble in most organic solvents (alcohol, chloroform, carbon disulfide, benzene), insoluble in water, soften on heating, burn with a soft flame, darken on storage.
- Chemically: Organic compounds containing no nitrogen, grouped into acids, alcohols, esters, and neutral substances.
- Examples: Podophyllum resin, jalap resins, colophony, sandarac, guaiacum
Resin Combinations:
- Oleo-resins: Natural plant resin + volatile oils (homogeneous) (e.g., Canada Balsam, Copaiba)
-
Balsams: Aromatic resinous substance + balsamic acid (benzoic and cinnamic acids) (e.g., Tolu benzoin, Storax, Balsam of Peru)
- Canada Balsam and Balsam of Copaiba are not true balsams as they lack balsamic acid.
- Oleo-gum resins: Combination of volatile oils, gums, and resins. May contain enzymes (e.g., Myrrh, Asafoetida)
Location of Resins in Different Parts of Plants
- External glands: Indian Hemp (Cannabis)
- Heartwood: Guaiacum and red sanders
- Internal glands: Male fern
- Glands on the surface of insects: Shellac
Resins from Internal Cavities:
- Unicellular: Ginger, Capsicum, Jalap
- Multicellular: Clove
- Cavity origin: Schizogenous or schizolysigenous
- Products: Normal physiological products or pathological products (due to injury)
Dried Juices
- Obtained from fleshy leaves or stems (e.g., Aloe kino)
- Incised parts release juices that are collected and dried.
Latices
- Latex: Secretion product from special secretory tissues, an aqueous white suspension of oil particles, milky consistency.
- Composition: Proteins, sugars, minerals, alkaloids, salts (in true solution), gums, starch, resins (in suspended form).
- Examples of commercial latices: Rubber, chicle gum
- Examples of pharmaceutical latices: Opium, papain, ficin, gutta-percha
Distribution of Medicinal Plants
| Plant type | Coverage |
|---|---|
| Trees | 33% |
| Herbs | 32% |
| Shrubs | 20% |
| Climbers | 12% |
| Others | 3% |
Extracts
- Pharmacognostic extracts: Crude drugs extracted with water and then concentrated. Used to prepare pharmaceutical preparations. Can be made using alcohol or hydro-alcoholic solutions and adjusted to standard strength (e.g., agar, sodium alginate, catechu, gelatin).
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Description
Test your knowledge about various categories of fruits including false fruits and pharmaceutical fruits. Additionally, explore the structure and function of seeds in flowering plants. Dive into the fascinating world of plant biology with this engaging quiz!
