French Revolution: Causes and Estates General

• The French Revolution spanned from 1789 to 1799.

The Old Regime (Ancien Régime)

• France was governed by absolutism.
• Society was divided into three estates, the First Estate including high-ranking members of the Church, the Second Estate consisting of Nobility, and the Third Estate comprising everyone else.

Causes of the French Revolution

• Absolutism and an unjust socio-political system were major factors.
• Peasants were heavily taxed, while the nobility paid little.
• Enlightenment ideas influenced revolutionary sentiments.
• Revolutions such as the Glorious Revolution and the American Revolution served as inspiration.
• The Estates General (Parliament) was convened to address the financial crisis.

Estates General (1789)

• Voting was conducted by estate rather than by population.
• The Third Estate demanded voting by population.

Tennis Court Oath (1789)

• The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly.
• Members swore an oath to create a new constitution.
• Louis XVI ordered all three estates to meet as the National Assembly.

National Assembly (1789 – 1791)

• Louis XVI planned to attack the Third Estate.
• On July 14, 1789, the Storming of the Bastille occurred, symbolizing the end of absolutism.
• Weapons were seized during the storming.
• A group of women attacked Versailles in October 1789, forcing the royal family to retreat to Paris.
• The National Guard was formed under Lafayette.

Changes under the National Assembly

• The Constitution of 1791 established France as a constitutional monarchy.
• The National Assembly transitioned into the Legislative Assembly.
• Feudalism was abolished, and equality before the law was ensured for men.
• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was established.
• Freedom of speech and religion, and the right to a fair trial were granted.
• Special privileges were ended, including the abolition of church lands, feudal dues, and tithes.
• Women were excluded, drawing criticism from feminists like Olympe de Gouges.

Legislative Assembly (1791 – 1792)

• The royal family was caught trying to escape to Austria.
• Political parties emerged, including the liberal Girondins and the radical Jacobins, led by Robespierre.

Convention (1792 – 1795)

• The First French Republic was established.
• Symbols of the Revolution included the French Tricolore, the "La Marseillaise" anthem, and the revolutionary calendar.
• The monarchy was abolished.
• Louis XVI was guillotined on January 21, 1793.
• Marie Antoinette was guillotined on October 16, 1793.

Reign of Terror (1793 – 1794)

• The Jacobins dominated French politics, led by Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety.
• 152 people were executed by guillotine, known as the "National Razor".
• Conscription (levée en masse) was introduced to defend France.
• On July 27, 1794, the Thermidorian Reaction occurred, leading to the overthrow and execution of Robespierre, ending the Reign of Terror.

Directory (1795 – 1799)

• This period was marked by corruption and poor administration.
• Nationalism rose.
• Napoleon Bonaparte came to power through a coup d'état, ending the 10-year revolutionary period.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 – 1821)

• Born in Corsica, Napoleon attended military school and joined the army.
• He gained popularity after victories in Italy.
• The Directory appointed him commander of French armies.
• Renowned as a brilliant military strategist, he was known as the "Savior of the Revolution."
• In 1799, he launched a Coup d’État and took power as First Consul, holding real authority over two symbolic consuls.
• In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French, asserting his authority over the Pope.

Napoleon’s Accomplishments

• He created the largest European empire since Rome.
• In 1803, he sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S.
• Catholicism was restored in France.
• Wages were increased by up to 25%.
• The Bank of France was established.
• The Napoleonic Code, establishing legal unity and stability, equality for all citizens, religious toleration, and advancement based on merit, was created.
• Women’s rights were restricted; married women lost many legal rights.

Napoleonic Wars (1805 – 1815)

• At the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), British Admiral Nelson defeated the French and Spanish fleets, leading Napoleon to abandon plans to invade Britain.
• The French won the Battle of Austerlitz (1805), also known as the "Battle of the Three Emperors," over Austria and Russia.
• The Continental System (1806), an economic blockade to prevent Britain from trading with Europe, failed as many European nations, including Russia, continued trading with Britain.
• During the Peninsular War (1808 – 1814), Napoleon occupied Spain and Portugal, forced the Spanish king and his son to abdicate, and made his brother Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain.
• Guerrilla warfare, supported by the Duke of Wellington, led to Napoleon's first major defeat.
• At the Battle of Leipzig (1813), also known as the "Battle of Nations," Napoleon was defeated by Britain, Russia, and Prussia.
• He lost control of Germany and Central Europe and was exiled to Elba, but allowed to keep the title of Emperor.

Napoleon’s 100 Days (March – July 1815)

• Louis XVIII was restored to the throne.
• Napoleon escaped Elba and returned to France.
• The French army joined him instead of stopping him.
• At the Battle of Waterloo (1815), Napoleon was defeated by the Duke of Wellington (British) and Gebhard von Blücher (Prussians).
• Factors leading to his loss were the delayed battle start due to rain, a strong British defensive position, and the arrival of Prussian reinforcements.
• Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to St. Helena.

Congress of Vienna (1814 – 1815)

• The Congress aimed to restore European stability and redraw borders.
• The Concert of Europe was established to prevent future revolutions.