French Indochina and the Domino theory

French Rule in Indochina

• France colonized French Indochina, comprising Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
• Ho Chi Minh, after studying various governments, advocated for communism in Vietnam.
• Minh aimed to overthrow the French and establish a communist state.

Domino Theory

• President Eisenhower introduced the Domino Theory.
• The theory posited that if Vietnam became communist, neighboring countries like Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand would follow.
• This fear drove the U.S. to oppose communism in Asia.

Indochina War and Geneva Accords

• Indochina fought against the French for 8 years, with the U.S. supporting the French.
• The French were defeated at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu.
• Indochina was then divided into Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
• Ho Chi Minh sought to establish communism in Vietnam, opposed by Ngo Dinh Diem, who wanted a democratic government.
• The Geneva Accords temporarily divided Vietnam along the 17th parallel, with the North being communist and the South being free, pending future elections.

Opposition Forces

• Ho Chi Minh led North Vietnam, with his supporters known as the Vietminh.
• In South Vietnam, the National Liberation Front (NLF), or Vietcong, supported communism.
• The Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) was South Vietnam's army.
• President Kennedy sent military advisors to aid the ARVN.
• Diem persecuted non-Catholics, particularly Buddhists.
• Diem was assassinated by his own people to maintain U.S. support.

U.S. Involvement

• President Kennedy initially avoided direct U.S. involvement.
• After the USS Maddox was attacked in the Gulf of Tonkin, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
• This resolution granted President Johnson broad powers to respond to threats against the U.S.
• The resolution is considered a significant mistake that pressured Johnson, contributing to his decision not to seek re-election in 1968.

Americanizing the War

• The U.S. increased its direct involvement in the fighting.
• Operation Rolling Thunder was a sustained bombing campaign against North Vietnam to weaken supply lines to the Vietcong.
• Napalm, a flammable jelly, was used to create large, fiery explosions.
• Agent Orange, a defoliant, was used to clear forests but caused major health issues.
• General William Westmoreland was the U.S. general in command of American troops in Vietnam.
• Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara was a key official involved in shaping U.S. strategy during the war under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson.

Vietcong Tactics

• The Vietcong used guerilla warfare tactics, including surprise attacks, traps, and nighttime operations.
• Extensive tunnel systems provided living spaces, weapon storage, and escape routes.
• U.S. soldiers, known as "tunnel rats," entered these dangerous tunnels to clear them.
• Hawks supported the war, while Doves opposed it.

The Draft

• The Selective Service Act, or the draft, required all males aged 18 and over to register.
• During the Vietnam War, a lottery system was used to avoid racial bias.
• Exemptions were granted for medical reasons and to conscientious objectors, including Jehovah's Witnesses and Quakers.

Anti-War Activism

• Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was a central organization for anti-war activism.
• SDS hubs were at the University of Michigan and the University of California, Berkeley.
• The organization led demonstrations and sit-ins.
• Universities initially restricted SDS meetings on campus.
• The Freedom Speech Movement emerged, leading universities to allow SDS back on campuses.

Tet Offensive

• The Tet Offensive occurred during the Vietnamese New Year, Tet, when a ceasefire was supposed to be in effect.
• Vietcong forces launched surprise attacks in multiple cities.
• The U.S. embassy in Saigon was temporarily seized.
• Ho Chi Minh claimed the Vietcong acted independently, but it was widely believed he supported the offensive.

Election of 1968

• President Lyndon B. Johnson did not seek re-election.
• Robert Kennedy, a leading Democratic candidate, was assassinated.
• Hubert Humphrey became the Democratic candidate.
• Richard Nixon, the Republican candidate, won the election.

Peace Talks and Vietnamization

• Nixon aimed to negotiate peace, but talks stalled due to disagreements over POWs, troop withdrawal, and Vietcong representation.
• Vietnamization involved the gradual withdrawal of American troops to allow the ARVN to take the lead.
• Nixon ordered secret bombings of Cambodia to disrupt the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
• The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, sought to establish communism in Cambodia.

Protests

• Protests intensified after the public learned about the bombings in Cambodia.
• At Kent State University in Ohio, National Guard troops opened fire on protesters, killing four students.
• At Jackson State University in Mississippi, police killed two students during a protest.

My Lai Massacre

• U.S. soldiers, led by Lt. William Calley, massacred unarmed civilians in the village of My Lai.
• Soldiers killed women, children, and the elderly, and burned down the village.
• Calley was arrested and served three years in military prison.

Pentagon Papers

• Daniel Ellsberg released the Pentagon Papers, a 1,500-page document, to the New York Times.
• The Nixon administration sued the New York Times, but the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the newspaper.
• The court held that the public had a right to know the information.

Election of 1972 and Paris Peace Accords

• Nixon was re-elected in 1972.
• The Paris Peace Accords were signed in 1973, leading to:
  • Immediate ceasefire
  • U.S. withdrawal
  • Exchange of POWs
  • The North Vietnamese exit from the South
  • Viet Cong becomes a political party
• North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam, captured Saigon, and renamed it Ho Chi Minh City, unifying Vietnam under communist rule.

Nixon and Foreign Policy

• Henry Kissinger served as Nixon's National Security Advisor and later as Secretary of State.
• Kissinger advocated for "realpolitik," a pragmatic approach to foreign policy.
• Nixon pursued a relationship with China to create a divide between China and the Soviet Union.
• The U.S. table tennis team was invited to China, leading to "Ping Pong Politics."
• Nixon became the first sitting U.S. president to visit China.
• The U.S. and the Soviet Union signed SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty).
• Limited the number of ABMs (Anti- Ballistic Missiles).
• Reduce nuclear weapon stockpiling.
• Reducing nuclear weapon stockpiling to ease Cold War tensions.