Foundations of Research Methods

Foundations of Research Methods

• Research is a systematic investigation that is empirical and contributes to public knowledge.
• Systematic investigation involves conscious and rational thinking.
• Empirical effort relies on systematic observation to yield data for decision-making.
• Public effort ensures research adds to the broader knowledge base.
• Research enterprise is macro-level accumulation of knowledge through empirical projects.

Translational Research

• Translational research moves research from discovery to practical application and societal impact.
• The research-practice continuum illustrates translation, with discoveries taking different pathways.
• Basic research generates discoveries and understanding, satisfying curiosity and expanding knowledge with universal principles.
• Applied research tests discoveries in real-world conditions.
• Implementation and dissemination research assesses how well an innovation spreads beyond controlled studies.
• Impact research evaluates the broader effects of discoveries on society.
• Policy research investigates existing policies or creates new ones.

Research Synthesis and Guidelines

• Research synthesis is a systematic study summarizing multiple projects on the same topic.
• Meta-analysis uses statistical methods to quantitatively combine results from similar studies.
• Systematic review focuses on a specific issue.
• Practice guidelines offer research-based recommendations with estimates of evidence strength.

Evidence-Based Practice and Evolutionary Epistemology

• Evidence-based practice encourages practitioners to use research evidence in their work.
• Evolutionary epistemology suggests ideas evolve through natural selection.

Conceptualizing Research

• Research topics come from practical problems, literature, requests for proposals (RFPs).
• Literature review compiles and summarizes published literature on a research topic.
• Peer review assesses research publications, editors use reviewers for critical analysis of papers.

Language of Research

• Social research is theoretical, concerned with developing theories about how the world operates.
• Research is empirical, based on direct observations and measurements.
• Research is probabilistic, based on probabilities due to inevitable inaccuracies in measurements.
• Causal relationships show cause-effect.

Types of Studies

• Descriptive studies document what is going on.
• Relational studies investigate connections between variables.
• Causal studies investigate causal relationships between variables.

Study Designs

• Cross-sectional studies take place at a single point in time.
• Longitudinal studies take place over multiple points in time.
• Repeated measures involve two or a few waves of measurement over time.
• Time series involve many waves of measurement over time (at least 20).

Relationships Between Variables

• A relationship is an association between two variables.
• Positive relationships are when high values on one variable are associated with high values on another.
• Negative relationships are when high values on one variable are associated with low values on another.
• Curvilinear relationships show complex relationships where the slope changes at some point.

Hypothesis Testing

• A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction.
• The alternative hypothesis (H₁ or HA) predicts what will happen in a study.
• The null hypothesis (Ho) describes outcomes other than the alternative hypothesis.
• One-tailed hypotheses specify a direction.
• Two-tailed hypotheses do not specify a direction.

Hypothetic-Deductive Model and Variables

• The hypothetic-deductive model tests mutually exclusive hypotheses.
• A variable is any entity that can take on different values.
• Quantitative variables are measured using numbers.

Attributes and Variables

• Attributes are values of a variable.
• The independent variable is manipulated.
• The dependent variable (the outcome) is affected by the independent variable.
• Attributes of variables should be exhaustive (including all possible answerable responses).
• Attributes of variables should be mutually exclusive (respondent cannot assign two attributes simultaneously).

Data Types and Units of Analysis

• Qualitative data is in the form of text, photographs, sound bites.
• Quantitative data appears in numerical form.
• The unit of analysis is the entity being analyzed.

Modeling and Reasoning

• Hierarchical modeling includes data at different levels, nested within units of analysis.
• Deductive reasoning starts with general principles and moves to specifics.
• Inductive reasoning starts with specific observations and moves to general conclusions.

Structure of Research

• Research questions are central issues addressed in a study, phrased in the language of theory.
• Operationalization translates a construct into its manifestation.
• Key components in a causal study are the research problem, question, program (cause), units, outcomes (effect), and design.

Validity in Research

• Validity assesses the truth of a proposition.
• Conclusion validity is the degree to which conclusions about relationships are reasonable.
• Internal validity is the truth about cause-effect relationships.
• Construct validity is inferences made from study operationalizations to theoretical constructs.
• External validity is the degree to which study conclusions hold for other persons, places, and times.
• Threats to validity are reasons why a conclusion might be wrong.
• Cause and effect constructs are abstract ideas of what the cause and effect are in a study.

Ethics in Research

• Research should be technologically sound, personally satisfying, and ethically conducted.
• Ethical norms in research promote moral and social values.

Ethical Principles

• Ethical research advances aims such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error.
• Ethical principles ensure accountability for publicly funded researchers.
• Research ethics concerns behavior in relation to the rights of subjects, including topic formulation, design, data handling, and analysis.

General Ethical Issues

• Non-maleficence is avoiding harm to participants.
• Respecting privacy and ensuring voluntary participation.
• Proper informed consent and confidentiality.
• Researcher behavior and objectivity.

Philosophical Standpoints

• Deontological view: ends do not justify unethical research means.
• Teleological view: ends may justify the means if balancing costs and benefits.

Levels of Consent

• Lack of consent involves deception.
• Implied consent involves participant access etc.
• Informed consent is based on full information about participation rights.

Historical Cases of Unethical Research

• The Nuremberg Code includes principles for human subject research.
• Milgram's Obedience studies examined obedience to authority versus personal conscience.
• The thalidomide tragedy led to drug safety amendments and informed consent.
• Amendments to the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act were passed after thalidomide tragedy.
• The Tuskegee syphilis study was a 40-year observational study of the impact of untreated syphilis on men.
• Declaration of Helsinki principles guide medical research and require independent committee review.

Modern System of Research Ethics

• The National Research Act of 1974 created a commission for human subject research guidelines.
• The Belmont Report includes principles such as respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.
• Respect for persons means treating individuals as autonomous.
• Vulnerable populations need extra protection.
• Assent is a child's agreement to participate.
• Informed consent informs participants about study procedures and risks.
• Voluntary participation means the right to decide without coercion.
• Beneficence maximizes benefits and limits harm.
• Justice ensures fairness in research participation.

Privacy and Confidentiality

• Privacy protects personal information.
• Anonymity ensures data cannot be linked to individuals.
• Confidentiality assures participants data will not be released.
• De-identification removes identifying information from data.

Deception and Debriefing

• Deception involves misleading information.
• Debriefing provides full information after participation.
• Right to service is the right to best available services.
• Placebos may be scientifically necessary but require careful ethical consideration.
• A protocol is a detailed document summarizing the purpose and procedures of a study.

Phases of Clinical Trials

• Phase I studies test new drugs in small groups for safety and dosage.
• Phase II studies test drugs in larger groups for effectiveness.
• Phase III studies are highly controlled trials to confirm effectiveness and monitor side effects.

Ethics in Scholarly Work

• Research misconduct includes fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism.
• Fabrication is making up data.
• Falsification is manipulating data.
• Plagiarism is using another's work without credit.
• Honesty in reporting and avoiding piecemeal duplicate publication is critical.
• The death of Jesse Gelsinger highlighted severe ethical breaches including conflict of interest.
• Authorship credit should be based on contributions, not status.