Fossil Fuels, Shale Gas, Turbines and Generators

• Fossil fuels are geological deposits of decayed organic material, converted into crude oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils by heat and pressure over millions of years.

Fossil Fuels

• Coal is a solid fossil fuel from terrestrial plants, used mainly for electricity generation.
• Crude Oil (Petroleum) is a liquid fossil fuel from marine microorganisms, refined into gasoline, diesel, and plastics.
• Natural Gas is a gaseous fossil fuel, mainly methane, used for heating, electricity, and industrial processes.
• Burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases, causing climate change, and air pollutants, leading to respiratory issues and acid rain.

Shale Gas

• Shale gas is natural gas trapped in shale formations.
• Extracted through hydraulic fracturing (fracking) using high-pressure water, sand, and chemicals.
• Fracking has environmental concerns like groundwater contamination, induced seismicity, and methane leakage.

Turbines and Generators

• Turbines convert fluid kinetic energy (steam, water, wind) into mechanical energy.
• Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy via electromagnetic induction.
• Turbines power generators to produce electricity.
• Steam turbines are used in fossil fuel and nuclear plants, hydro turbines in dams, and wind turbines in wind farms.

Nuclear Power

• Nuclear power generates electricity through nuclear fission, releasing heat.
• Nuclear reactors use this heat to produce steam, which drives turbines and generators.
• Advantages: low greenhouse gas emissions during operation.
• Disadvantages: radioactive waste, accident risks, and nuclear proliferation concerns.

Renewable Energy

• Renewable energy comes from constantly replenished natural processes.
• Solar Power converts sunlight into electricity using photovoltaic cells or concentrated solar power.
• Wind Power employs wind turbines to convert wind's kinetic energy into electricity.
• Hydropower generates electricity from flowing water in rivers and dams.
• Geothermal Energy harnesses Earth's internal heat for heating and electricity.
• Tidal Energy uses tidal kinetic energy to generate electricity.

Biomass Energy

• Biomass energy comes from organic materials like wood, crops, and waste.
• Biomass can be burned, converted into biofuels (ethanol, biodiesel), or used in anaerobic digestion for biogas.
• Sustainability depends on responsible sourcing to prevent deforestation and competition with food production.

Kinetic Pumped Storage Systems

• Stores energy by using excess electricity to accelerate a heavy rotor.
• Rotor's kinetic energy converts back into electricity when needed.
• Advantages include rapid response times and long lifespan.

Alkali Batteries

• They are primary (non-rechargeable) batteries using an alkaline electrolyte.
• Common household batteries like alkaline manganese batteries are an example.
• Advantages: Long shelf life, relatively high energy density.

Rechargeable Batteries

• Designed to be repeatedly charged and discharged.
• Lithium-ion Batteries: High energy density, in electronics and EVs.
• Nickel-metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries: Higher capacity than NiCd, less toxic.
• Lead-acid Batteries: Used in vehicles and backup power systems.

Graphene

• A single layer of carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice.
• Has exceptional strength, electrical and thermal conductivity.
• Potential Applications: Advanced batteries, supercapacitors, and electronic devices.

Metal Foam

• A metallic structure with high pore volume, making it lightweight and porous.
• Properties include high strength-to-weight ratio, energy absorption, and thermal insulation.
• Used in the automotive and aerospace industries, and also heat exchangers.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

• Uses liquid crystals to modulate light in a display technology.
• Liquid crystals change orientation with an electric field, controlling light through polarized filters.
• Applications: Televisions, computer monitors, and mobile devices.

Coated Metals

• Metals with a surface layer applied to enhance properties.
• Includes corrosion-resistant, wear-resistant, and decorative coatings.
• Used in construction, automotive, and aerospace industries.

Titanium

• Is a strong, lightweight, and corrosion-resistant metal.
• Has a high strength-to-weight ratio and biocompatibility.
• Used in aerospace, medical implants, and sporting goods.

Nanomaterials

• Materials with dimensions of 1-100 nanometers.
• Exhibit unique properties due to size, like increased surface area and quantum effects.
• Applications: Catalysis, electronics, and medicine.

Polymorph

• A solid material, able to exist in more than one crystaline form.
• Different forms can result in different physical properties.

SMA (Shape Memory Alloy)

• Alloys "remember" their original shape and return to it when heated.
• Applications: Actuators, medical devices, and aerospace.

Quantum Tunnelling Composite (QTC)

• Material that changes electrical resistance in response to pressure.
• Used in pressure sensors, touch screens, and flexible electronics.

Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP)

• Composite of glass fibers in a polymer matrix.
• High strength, lightweight, and corrosion resistance.
• Used in boats, pipes, and building materials.

Thermochromic Materials

• Materials that change color with temperature changes.
• Used in temperature indicators, clothing, and novelty items.

Photochromic Materials

• Materials that change color in response to light.
• Applications: Transition lenses in eyeglasses, and security inks.

CRP (Carbon Reinforced Polymer)

• Is a composite using carbon fibers in a polymer matrix.
• Very high tensile strength. Used in aerospace, and high end sports equipment.

Gore-Tex

• Waterproof and breathable fabric membrane of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE).
• Applications: Outdoor clothing, footwear, and medical devices.

Kevlar

• Heat-resistant and strong synthetic fiber.
• Has high tensile strength, used in bulletproof vests and protective gear.

Microfibres

• Are extremely fine synthetic fibers, often used in textiles.
• They pose an environmental pollution risk due to shedding during washing.

Fire Resistant Fabrics

• Fabrics resist burning or slow flames, either treated or made from specific materials.
• Used in protective clothing, fire blankets, and building materials.

Conductive Fabrics

• Fabrics conduct electricity.
• They are made by adding conductive fibers or coatings.
• Used in wearable electronics, sensors, and electromagnetic shielding.