Fluid & Electrolyte Imbalances

Module 1: Fluid & Electrolyte Imbalances

• Aldosterone increases sodium retention and potassium excretion in the kidneys, regulating blood pressure and fluid balance.
• Excess aldosterone causes fluid retention and hypokalemia, while aldosterone deficiency leads to dehydration and hyperkalemia.
• Hyperkalemia is indicated by elevated potassium levels, causing muscle weakness, cardiac arrhythmias, and peaked T waves on ECG.
• Hypokalemia is caused by low potassium levels, resulting in muscle cramps, fatigue, and flattened T waves.
• Hypernatremia happens when there is excess sodium causing dehydration, confusion, and increased thirst.
• Hyponatremia results from low sodium, leading to headaches, confusion, and seizures.
• Hypocalcemia is indicated by insufficient calcium levels, causing tetany, Chvostek's and Trousseau's signs, and arrhythmias.
• Hypercalcemia occurs when there are high calcium levels, leading to fatigue, kidney stones, and bone pain.
• Chronic diarrhea causes metabolic acidosis through bicarbonate depletion, leading to low pH and compensatory hyperventilation to reduce CO2 levels.
• Metabolic acidosis is indicated by a low pH due to excess acid or bicarbonate loss, which can be from diarrhea, renal failure, and diabetic ketoacidosis.
• Metabolic alkalosis is from a high pH due to bicarbonate excess or acid loss, caused by vomiting, diuretics, and excessive antacid use.
• Respiratory acidosis is indicated by a low pH caused by CO2 retention, commonly caused by COPD, airway obstruction, and respiratory depression.
• Respiratory alkalosis results from a high pH due to CO2 loss, caused by hyperventilation, anxiety, and fever.

Immunity and Vaccination

• Mast cells release histamine in response to allergens, leading to swelling, itching, and bronchoconstriction, which is key in type I hypersensitivity reactions like anaphylaxis.
• Adaptive immunity involves specific immune responses primarily using B and T lymphocytes.
• Passive immunity is acquired through maternal antibodies or immunoglobulin therapy.
• The influenza vaccine needs to be updated annually due to viral mutations and antigenic drift.

Immune System Function

• Lymphocytes are the primary cells in adaptive immunity, producing antibodies and memory cells.
• Mast cells mediate type I hypersensitivity reactions and are responsible for histamine release.
• C-Reactive Protein (CRP) is a marker of systemic inflammation and is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
• Acute inflammation is caused by vasodilation of arterioles and congestion in capillary beds, leading to redness and swelling.
• Chronic inflammation is a prolonged immune response contributing to conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and atherosclerosis.

Burn Classifications

• Superficial (First-Degree) burns show redness and pain without blisters, like a sunburn.
• Partial-Thickness (Second-Degree) burns feature redness, blistering, and severe pain, exemplified by scald burns.
• Full-Thickness (Third-Degree) burns are characterized by white or charred skin and loss of sensation, such as severe chemical burns.

Module 4: Gastrointestinal Disorders

• Crohn's Disease is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease marked by cobblestone lesions in the intestines, leading to malabsorption, abdominal pain, and diarrhea.

Renal Function & Electrolyte Regulation

• Kidneys regulate red blood cell production by secreting erythropoietin; chronic kidney disease leads to decreased erythropoietin and anemia.
• Kidneys convert vitamin D to its active form for calcium absorption in the intestines; renal dysfunction leads to impaired calcium regulation and bone demineralization.

Urinary Disorders

• Stress Incontinence is urine leakage due to weakened pelvic floor muscles, managed with Kegel exercises.
• Stress Incontinence involves leakage during physical exertion like coughing or sneezing.
• Urge Incontinence is a sudden, intense urge to urinate due to bladder overactivity.
• Overflow Incontinence happens when there is incomplete bladder emptying, leading to dribbling.

Module 5: Menopause & Hormonal Changes

• Estrogen decline is when cessation of ovarian function causes decreased estrogen levels, contributing to osteoporosis, hot flashes, and increased cardiovascular risk.

Male Reproductive Disorders

• Testicular Cancer: Early detection is crucial; enlargement of the testicle is the most common early symptom.

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)

• PID is a bacterial infection of the female reproductive organs, with fever, purulent cervical discharge, and pelvic pain, often from untreated STIs.

Module 6: Hormonal Regulation

• Oxytocin stimulates milk ejection from the mammary glands.
• Growth Hormone (GH) stimulates growth and metabolism.
• Prolactin aids in milk production.
• Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) regulates thyroid hormone secretion.

Thyroid Disorders

• Graves' Disease is an autoimmune condition where TSH-receptor antibodies overstimulate the thyroid, causing hyperthyroidism.

Diabetes Mellitus

• Somogyi Effect is rebound hyperglycemia due to insulin-induced nocturnal hypoglycemia.
• Dawn Phenomenon is morning hyperglycemia caused by normal hormonal fluctuations.
• Type 1 Diabetes: The immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells, leading to insulin dependence.
• Hypoglycemia causes sudden onset of altered mental status, headache, and tremors due to low blood glucose levels.
• Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA): Uncontrolled diabetes, excessive ketone production, metabolic acidosis, and Kussmaul respirations.

Module 7: Nervous System Structure & Function

• The Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord, integrating sensory input and coordinating response.
• The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes nerves outside the CNS, divided into somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) systems.
• Neurons are the fundamental units of the nervous system that transmit electrical impulses.
• Glial cells support neurons and include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, and microglia.

Common Neurologic Disorders

• Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges, often caused by bacteria or viruses.
• Seizures & Epilepsy are characterized by uncontrolled electrical activity in the brain, categorized as focal or generalized.
• Stroke (Cerebrovascular Accident - CVA) is the interruption of blood flow to the brain, either ischemic (blockage) or hemorrhagic (bleeding).
• Multiple Sclerosis (MS): An autoimmune disorder causing demyelination of CNS neurons.
• Parkinson's Disease (PD): A neurodegenerative disorder is caused by dopamine depletion in the substantia nigra.
• Alzheimer's Disease (AD): Is a progressive dementia associated with beta-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.

Types of Stroke

Neurotransmitters & Associated Disorders

Module 8: Respiratory System Overview

• Ventilation: Movement of air into and out of the lungs.
• Diffusion: Gas exchange across the alveolar-capillary membrane.
• Perfusion: Blood flow through the pulmonary circulation.
• Mucociliary Clearance: Protective mechanism that removes inhaled particles via mucus and cilia.

Common Respiratory Disorders

• Asthma: Chronic inflammatory disease causing bronchoconstriction and airflow obstruction.
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): Includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
• Pneumonia: Infection that inflames alveoli, filling them with fluid or pus.
• Influenza: Viral infection that affects the respiratory system.
• Tuberculosis (TB): Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, often affecting the lungs.
• Lung Cancer: Malignant growth in lung tissue, strongly linked to smoking.
• Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS): Severe lung inflammation leading to fluid buildup in the alveoli.

COPD vs. Asthma

Bacterial vs. Viral Pneumonia